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VOL. LXII.
WITH NINETEEN PLATES and 217 Text-figures.
Shy, DIN EL Ye: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY BY
AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO, LTD, Seamer Street, Glebe, Sydney,
and SOLD BY THE SOCIETY. 19387.
ii CONTENTS.
CONTENTS OF PROCEEDINGS, 1937.
PARTS I-II (Nos. 269-270). (Issued 15th May, 1937.)
Pages.
Pyesidential Address, delivered at the Sixty-second Annual Generali Meeting, 31st March, 1937, by Mr. C. A. Sussmilch i-XXxX1li Elections XXXili Balance-sheets for the year ending 28th February, 1937 .. .. .. XXKXiV—xxxvi
The Structure of Galls formed by Cyttaria septentrionalis on Fagus
Moorei. By Janet M. Wilson, B.A. (Plates i-ii and twelve Text- figures. ) 1- 8
Entozoa from the Australian Hair Seal. By T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Se., F.L.S. (Twelve Text-figures.) 9-16
Notes on Genus Calliphora (Diptera). Classification, Synonymy, Distribu- tion and Phylogeny. By G. H. Hardy. (One Text-figure.) 17-26
A Census of the Orchids of New South Wales, 1937. By the Rey. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A. .. 27-31
Australian Hesperiidae. vi. Descriptions of New Subspecies. By G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.K., F.R.E.S. 32-34
The Distribution of Sooty-mould Fungi and its Relation to certain Aspects
of their Physiology. By Lilian Fraser, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany. (Plate iii and twelve Text-figures. ) 35-56
On the Histological Structure of some Australian Galls. By E. Kiister. (Communicated by Dr. A. B. Walkom.) (Fourteen Text-figures. ) 57-64
Final Additions to the Flora of the Comboyne Plateau. By EH. C. Chisholm, M.B., Ch.M. 65-72
Some Notes on the Nomenclature of certain Common Species of Eucalyptus. By T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc., F.L.S. (Plate iv.) .. 138-17
PARTS III-IV (Nos. 271-272). (Issued 15th September, 19387.)
Two New Species and one New Variety of Drimys Forst., with Notes on
the Species of Drimys and Bubbia van Tiegh. of South-eastern
Australia and Lord Howe Jsland. By Joyce W. Vickery, M.Sc. (Plate v and two Text-figures.) 78— 84
Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Oecophoridae. vi. By A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S.
85-106
CONTENTS.
Australian Hesperiidae. vii. Notes on the Types and Type Localities. By G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.H., F.R.E.S.
Revision of the Genus Fergusonina Mall. (Diptera, Agromyzidae). By A. L. Tonnoir. (Communicated by Dr. G. A. Currie.) (Sixteen Text-figures. )
Galls on Hucalyptus Trees. A New Type of Association between Flies and Nematodes. By G. A. Currie, D.Se., B.Sc.Agr. (Plates vi-vii and thirty-one Text-figures. )
Notes on Fossil Diatoms from New South Wales, Australia. i. Fossil Diatoms from Diatomaceous Harth, Cooma, N.S.W. By B. V. Skvortzov. (Communicated by Dr. A. B. Walkom.) (Twenty-six Text-figures. )
A Monograph of the Australian Colydiidae. By H. J. Carter, B.A., F.R.E.S., and E. H. Zeck. (Plates vili-ix and two Text-figures.)
The Occurrence of the Australian Pilchard, Sardinops neopilchardus (Steind.), and its Spawning Season in New South Wales Waters, together with brief Notes on other New South Wales Clupeids. By Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc., C.M.Z.S. (Plate xi.)
Notes on the Biology of Tabanus froggatti, T. gentilis and T. neobasalis (Diptera). By Mary EH. Fuller, B.Sc. (Plate x and thirteen Text- figures. )
The Growth of Soil on Slopes. By Professor J. Macdonald Holmes, Ph.D. (Plate xiii and three Text-figures.)
Arthur Henry Shakespeare Lucas. (Memorial Series, No. 7.) (With Portrait)
PARTS V-VI (Nos. 273-274). (Issued 15th December, 1937.)
On the Identity of the Butterfly known in Australia as Heteronympha philerope Boisd., 1832. By G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sec., B.H., F.R.E.S. ..
Notes on Australian Mosquitoes (Diptera, Culicidae). Part iii. The Genus Aedomyia Theobald. By I. M. Mackerras, M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc. (Five Text-figures. )
The Petrology of the Hartley District. iv. The Altered Dolerite Dykes. By Germaine A. Joplin, B.Se., Ph.D. ..
The Ecology of the Upper Williams River and Barrington Tops Districts. i. Introduction. By Lilian Fraser, D.Sc., and Joyce W. Vickery, M.Se. (Plate xiv, two Maps and ten Text-figures.)
Notes on some Species occurring in the Upper Williams River and Barrington Tops Districts, with Descriptions of two new Species and two new Varieties. By Lilian Fraser, D.Sc., and Joyce W. Vickery, M.Se. (Two Text-figures. )
126-146
147-174
175-180
181-208
209-216
Z84—293
iv CONTENTS.
Pages. Notes on Australian Mosquitoes (Diptera, Culicidae). Part iv. The Genus
Theobaldia, with Description of a new Species. By D. J. Lee, B.Sc.
(Nine Text-figures.) 294-298 Notes on Australian Orchids. iii. A Review of the Genus Cymbidium in
Australia. ii. By the Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A. (Three Text-
figures.) 299-302 The Occurrence of Graptolites near Yass, New South Wales. By Kathleen
Sherrard, M.Sc., and R. A. Keble, F.G.S. (Plate xv and twenty-five
Text-figures. ) 303-314 The Ecology of the Central Coastal Area of New South Wales. i. The
Environment and General Features of the Vegetation. By Ilma M.
Pidgeon, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Soeiety in Botany.
(Plate xvi-xvii and six Text-figures.) 315-340 The Carboniferous Sequence in the Werrie Basin. By S. Warren Carey,
M.Se. (With Palaeontological Notes by Ida A. Brown, D.Sc.). (Plate
xvili and five Text-figures.) 341-376 A Note on the Ascigerous Stage of Claviceps Paspali S. & H. in Australia.
By W. L. Waterhouse, D.Se.Agr. .. 377 List of New Genera and Subgenera 379 List of Plates 380 Abstractwot #Proceedimess:).) \ ih) 7 Dien: Sis seas dnote te. ad ete oy ene XXXVil—xlv Donations and Exchanges Beene eerie Ree ee ae) Lota eos wan 3 ot | Shall TASC OE AMEND CLS in MMe at eee 2s, Rem seul eeu eta Mae ee te am area am Vale eL > Dox Index Shoe NO fo So, HR Ah ROE LR Rae ee eae A ay aT oe lxiii-Ixxiv
CORRIGENDA.
(Volume Ixii.) Page ix, line 14, for Fuviatile read Fluviatile Page xviii, line 25, for determinaitons read determinations Page 19, line 10 from bottom of page, for fulvithorar read fulvicoxa Page 155, line 6 trom bottom of page, for brimblecombei read brimblecombi Page 167, line 6, for brimblecombei read brimblecombi
Page 168, line 2, for brimblecombei read brimblecombi
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING. WEDNESDAY, 31st Marcu, 1937.
The Sixty-second Annual General Meeting was held in the Society’s Rooms, Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, on Wednesday, 31st March, 1937.
Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S., President, in the Chair.
The minutes of the preceeding Annual General Meeting (25th March, 1936) were read and confirmed.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
Following a well-established practice, I will devote the first part of my address to a brief review of the Society’s affairs during the past twelve months.
The concluding part of Volume 1xi of the Society’s ProcrEDINGS was issued in December. The complete volume (360 plus Ixxxiii pages, seventeen plates and 196 text-figures) contains twenty-five papers and, in addition, the memorial accounts of Charles Hedley and Tannatt William Hdgeworth David.
Exchanges from scientific societies and institutions totalled 2,156 for the session, aS compared with 1,703, 1,795 and 1,865 for the three preceding years. During the past year the following institutions have been added to the exchange list: Centre National de Recherches agronomiques, Versailles; Lingnan Science Journal, Canton; Société Royale Entomologique d’Egypte, Cairo; Station biologique de Roscoff, Paris; and Takeuchi Entomological Laboratory, Tokyo.
Since the last Annual Meeting the names of thirteen members have been added to the list, three members have been lost by death, three have resigned, and the names of four have been removed on account of arrears of subscription.
ARTHUR HENRY SHAKESPEARE Lucas, who died at Albury, N.S.W., on 10th June, 1936, was born at Stratford-on-Avon, England, on 7th May, 1858. The son of Rev. Samuel Lucas, F.G.S., a Methodist minister, with a sound knowledge of geology, he grew up in a scientific atmosphere. He was educated at New Kingswood Schooi, Bath, and at Oxford University, where he was an exhibitioner at Balliol College. He obtained the degrees of Master of Arts of Oxford and Bachelor of Science of London. After holding a mastership at the Leys School, Cambridge, under Dr. W. F. Moulton, he came to Melbourne in 1883, and taught Mathematics and Science to the senior classes at Wesley College and also lectured in Natural Science at the University Colleges, Trinity, Ormond and Queen’s. In 1893 he moved to Sydney as Headmaster of Newington College, from which post he retired in 1898 to become Mathematics and Science Master at the Sydney Grammar School, where later he became Headmaster. For a time he lectured in Physiography at the University of Sydney. He retired from school work in 1923, but later, for two years (1924— 1926), he accepted appointment as Professor of Mathematics at the University of Tasmania.
While he was in Victoria he was actively interested in the Field Naturalists’ Club, being the first editor of the Victorian Naturalist, and President of the Club 1887-1889.
A
ii PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
He was President of this Society for the two years 1907-09, and was a member of Council from 1895 until his death, with the exception of the two years he spent in Tasmania.
The greatest part of his published work is contained in numerous papers dealing with the Algae, on which he was a recognized authority. He was an indefatigable collector, and after his retirement he spent several months each year in collecting seaweeds from many parts of the Australian coast. He was Honorary Curator of Algae at the Sydney Botanic Gardens for many years. His own large collection of Australian Marine Algae, containing some 5,000 specimens, he bequeathed to the Commonwealth Government.
Apart from his two Presidential Addresses, he contributed sixteen papers (two in conjunction with C. Frost) to our PRocEEDINGS during the years 1894-1936. Most of these papers were the results of his studies on Algae, but several of the earlier ones dealt with Australian Lizards.
The range of his work is indicated by the fact that, apart from his work on Algae, he published an ‘Introduction to Botany” (in collaboration with Professor Dendy) and ‘The Animals of Australia” and “The Birds of Australia” (both in collaboration with D. le Souef).
He was Local Honorary Secretary of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science for Victoria in 1892, and was President of the Geography Section at the Brisbane (1909) meeting.
In addition to his scientific attainments he was an accomplished linguist, having a sound knowledge of several modern languages (including Spanish, Italian and Russian) as well as Latin and Greek. As a teacher he was lucid, thorough, and inspiring, and his amazing versatility is indicated by the fact, recorded by one of his biographers, that “in the days of the old Senior Hxamination his boys won medals in thirteen different subjects, and it was his personal teaching that produced so remarkable a result”. Notwithstanding his wide range of accom- plishments, he was a remarkably modest man, and thus he deserved far more public recognition than he ever got. Those who knew him, however, were able to appreciate his lovable disposition, his kindness and sympathy, and his charming modesty.
Rosin JOHN TILLYARD was born on 31st January, 1881, at Norwich, England, and died in Goulburn District Hospital on 13th January, 1937, as a result of a motor accident while driving from Canberra to Sydney. His early education was at Dover College, from which he won scholarships to Oxford for classics and to Cambridge for mathematics. He chose the latter and proceeded to Queens’ College, Cambridge. He obtained his degree of Bachelor of Arts in mathematics in 1903, and in the following year read Oriental languages and theology, but rheumatism compelled him to leave England, and he accepted appointment as a master in science and mathematics at Sydney Grammar School. He graduated Master of Arts of Cambridge in 1907. In 1913 he was admitted as a Research Student in the University of Sydney and awarded a Government Science Research Scholarship, which he held for two years, graduating Bachelor of Science in 1914. He obtained his Doctorate in Science at Sydney in 1918. He held a Linnean Macleay Fellow- ship in Zoology from 1915 to 1920, in which year he was appointed Chief of the Biological Department of the newly-established Cawthron Institute at Nelson, N.Z. During his tenure of the Macleay Fellowship he was granted leave of absence for a period in 1917 to act as Lecturer in Zoology at the University of Sydney. In 1926 he became Assistant-Director of the Cawthron Institute, and in 1928 returned to Australia as Chief of the Division of Economic Entomology of the Council for
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. lil
Scientific and Industrial Research, from which he retired on account of ill-health in 1934.
He had a brilliant career as an Entomologist, the results of his researches appearing in his two books “The Biology of Dragonflies” (1917) and ‘The Insects of Australia and New Zealand” (1926) and some two hundred papers in the journals of scientific societies. His early work was mostly on the Odonata, while during his term as a Linnean Macleay Fellow he worked on a wide variety of entomological problems, including wing venation and other characters of the Odonata, Australian Neuroptera, Australian Mecoptera, the Panorpoid Complex, and fossil insects of Permian and Triassic age in Queensland and New South Wales. In New Zealand, and subsequently at Canberra, he necessarily devoted a large portion of his time to the measures necessary to combat a number of insect pests, but, with his amazing energy, he continued his own work on various insect groups, particularly those found abundantly as fossils. For several years he collaborated with the late Sir Edgeworth David in investigating fossil remains, from rocks of Pre-Cambrian age in South Australia, which they believed to be the remains of primitive crustaceans. Some of their results have been published as a Memoir on Fossils of the late Pre-Cambrian from the Adelaide Series.
His scientific publications brought to him many honours: he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, London (1925), Fellow of the New Zealand Institute (1924), Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society, London (1921). Cambridge University conferred on him its Doctorate in Science (1921), and Queens’ College elected him an honorary Fellow. He was awarded the Crisp Medal (1917) by the Linnean Society of London, the Trueman-Wood Medal (1926) by the Royal Society of Arts and Science, London; the R. M. Johnston Memorial Medal (1929) by the Royal Society of Tasmania; the Clarke Memorial Medal (1931) by the Royal Society of New South Wales; and the Mueller Medal (1935) by the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science. He was president of the Zoology Section of the New Zealand Science Congress at Dunedin in 1924, and of the Zoology Section of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science at Brisbane in 1930. He had been a member of this Society since 1904, and contributed eighty-nine papers to the PROCEEDINGS during the years 1905-1935.
WALTER WILSON FRocGATT, who died at Croydon on 18th March, 1937, was born at Melbourne, 13th June, 1858. The son of George W. Froggatt, a mining engineer, he was educated at the Corporate High School, Bendigo, Victoria. Both his parents were keen nature lovers, and so he early developed his love of natural history. On account of ill-health he spent some years on the Jand in north-west Victoria, and droving in western New South Wales and Queensland. In Queens- land he also spent some time on various goldfields—Mt. Brown, Cairns, Herberton and Flinders. During this time in the country he developed his interest in the study of insects, which he collected widely. Through this he met Baron F. von Mueller, then Government Botanist of Victoria, and, partly as a result of the Baron’s good offices, he was appointed entomologist and assistant zoologist to the scientific exploring expedition to New Guinea despatched by the Royal Geographical Society of New South Wales. After his return he was engaged by Sir William Macleay, as collector for his private museum, from 1886 to 1888. During this period he collected in northern Queensland, and also in north-western Australia, in the back country of the Kimberleys. From 1889 to 1896 he was assistant and collector at the Sydney Technological Museum under the late J. H. Maiden, and in 1896 he was appointed Government Entomologist, which position he occupied
iv PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
until he retired in 1923. After his retirement he was special Forest Entomologist to the Forestry Commission of New South Wales from 1923 to 1927. For ten years after the institution of the Faculty of Agriculture, he lectured in Entomology at the University of Sydney.
He had been a member of this Society since 1886, was President 1911-1913, and a member of Council from 1898 till his death. He contributed to the PROCEEDINGS some forty-nine papers (one in conjunction with F. W. Goding) in addition to his two Presidential Addresses.
He took the greatest interest in all naturalist societies, and was always an active member of the Naturalists’ Society of New South Wales, of which he was President for some years; he was a member of the Council of the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, which elected him a Fellow in 1931. He was also a member and one of the founders of the Wattle League, Wild Life Preservation Society, and the Gould League of Bird Lovers. He was a member of the Australian National Research Council, 1921-1932, and a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London.
His scientific writings covered a wide range in entomology, and comprised many departmental reports in addition to his contributions to the publications of scientific societies. He was also the author of “Australian Insects” (1907), “Some Useful Australian Birds” (1921), “Forest Insects of Australia” (1923), and ‘‘Forest Insects and Timber Borers” (1927), as well as handbooks on Insects (1933) and Spiders (1935). In the course of his work he was sent on a world tour to study insect pests in general and fruit pests in particular for the Governments of South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland; in 1909 he visited the Solomon Islands at the invitation of Levers’ Pacific Plantations, and in 1913 went to the New Hebrides at the request of the French Planters’ Association.
During the past year the David Memorial Fund was closed, the result being that a sum of £2,079 was handed to the Senate of the University of Sydney, which has decided that the interest shall be used for the establishment of a post-graduate travelling scholarship for Geology to be known as the Edgeworth David Scholar- ship. The Senate of the University also decided that in future the Chair of Geology shall be called the “Hdgeworth David Chair of Geology”.
The Council of the Society also gave its support to a proposal to obtain a portrait of the late Sir Edgeworth David, to be hung in Science House. The Committee appointed for the purpose of carrying out this project received sufficient subscriptions from members of the societies associated in Science House, and has commissioned Mr. Norman Carter to paint the portrait.
In an effort to expedite the appointment by the Government of Trustees for the Sir Joseph Banks Memorial Fund, the Council arranged for a deputation to wait on the Acting-Premier in May last year. The deputation was received by Major Shand (in the absence of the Acting-Premier), and received a sympathetic hearing, but I regret to say that the Government has not yet brought forward the necessary formal legislation to enable the trust to be appointed.
The proclamation by which numerous wild flowers are afforded protection was renewed for a further period of a year from 1st July, 1936.
With the object of ensuring that type material of species from Australia and the Mandated Territories should be available for scientific workers in Australia, your Council asked the Commonwealth Government to extend the principle approved by it in 1923 for Australia, that the types of new species and duplicates of rare species collected by expeditions should be deposited in an Australian
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Vv
Museum, to the Mandated Territories. The Society was notified in September, 1936, that “in future special permits to collect in New Guinea will contain a condition that types of new species and duplicates of any rare species obtained must be donated to the Administration of the Territory”, and in December, 1936, “That the Lieutenant-Governor of Papua proposes to declare all specimens of flora and fauna to be prohibited exports except with the consent of the Treasurer, such consent to be given after the collector has furnished an undertaking that he has not collected any new or rare specimens or that he is sending or has sent certain specimens to Canberra.”
The vacancy in the Council resulting from the death of Mr. A. H. §. Lucas was filled by the election of Mr. R. H. Anderson, B.Sc.Agr.
The year’s work of the Society’s research staff may be summarized thus:
Mr. H. L. Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society, continued investiga- tions into nitrogen-fixation in wheat soils. In twenty-six soils to which no extra source of energy was added, completely negative results were obtained. In soils to which glucose or straw had been added, to test the potential N-fixing capacity, only two out of sixteen soils gave a moderate N-fixation under aerobic conditions with the addition of glucose; the addition of straw did not in any experiment result in a measurable gain of nitrogen. Experiments with twelve wheat soils exposed to daylight to test the possible importance of algae gave negative results, but one other soil showed a significant gain of nitrogen. No aerobic organism other than Azotobacter chroococcum (the only species of Azotobacter so far encountered) has yet been found capable of fixing elementary nitrogen. Pure cultures of this species were found capable of assimilating 12-15 mgm. of elementary nitrogen per gram of glucose consumed. Since the assimilation of 10 mgm. N per gram of glucose is considered a normal amount, the lack of N-fixation in the wheat soils cannot be ascribed to inefficiency of the Azotobacter strains. Unfavourable soil reaction (acid) seems in most cases responsible for the absence of N-fixation. Nitrification experiments with thirty soils have shown a close correlation between total N-content and nitrate production. The conclusion is indicated that it cannot be assumed that the processes of non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation will suffice to compensate the wheat lands for the gradual removal of nitrogen by continued cultivation of wheat, particularly if stubble-burning is regularly practised.
Miss Lilian Fraser, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany, continued her work on the Sooty Moulds of New South Wales, completing two papers for publication and preparing a thesis containing results of all her work on this subject. In this thesis she attempts to show (a) that there is a distribution and typical assemblage of sooty-mould fungi which is dependent directly on the ability of the individual species to resist heat and desiccation, and (0) to explain the reason for the predominance of members of the Capnodiaceae and certain other species in sooty-mould colonies, their absence from other habitats occupied by decay-causing fungi, and the absence or relative unimportance of decay-causing fungi in sooty-mould colonies. One paper, “Notes on the Occurrence of the Trichopeltaceae and Atichiaceae in New South Wales” appeared in the ProcEEDINGS for 1936, and another, “The Distribution of Sooty-mould Fungi and its Relation to certain Aspects of their Physiology’, is complete and will appear in the PROCEEDINGS for 1937. With the object of finding reasons for the composition of sooty-mould colonies and the absence of common saprophytes, a series of experi- ments was carried out to ascertain the effect in culture of the growth of individual species upon the growth of other species. It was found that, whereas true sooty-
vi PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
mould fungi do not retard each other’s growth to any great extent in culture, the same species do retard the growth of Penicillium. This may in part explain the ability of a large number of sooty-mould species to grow together in the one colony, and also the absence of the common saprophytes. Studies of the behaviour of gas bubbles in living sooty-mould cells have shown that the bubbles are within the protoplast and controlled by its properties. The composition of the gas under various conditions of desiccation has been determined, but further work is necessary on this. It has been shown that gas must be able to diffuse slowly across the dry cell-wall, that a certain amount of gas can accumulate in a cell which has never had access to air, and that the cell-wall can absorb moisture from a nearly saturated atmosphere in sufficient quantity to allow for growth of the hyphae. This latter property is no doubt responsible for the ability of sooty-mould fungi to colonize the habitats in which they are found. An ecological survey of the rain forests and Eucalypt forests of the Upper Williams River and Barrington Tops Plateau which was undertaken in collaboration with Joyce Vickery, M.Sc., of the National Herbarium, Botanic Gardens, is being completed.
Dr. I. V. Newman, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany, continued genetical work by an examination of anthesis of Acacia discolor and by carrying out experiments with pollination to find the time of ripening of the stigma and the periods between pollinaticn, germination of pollen, and fertilization. This work was incomplete at the time of his resignation from the Fellowship. A germination test was made with seeds of Acacia Baileyana collected from two localities near Cootamundra. The test gives no indication of segregation of widely divergent foliar characters, the variations shown being such as might be expected from open pollination in a wild species (without crossing). The recording of this test was not completed at the time of resignation. The investigation of polyspermy was retarded by considerable technical difficulties in handling and sectioning, at the great thinness necessary, the carpels which are such small, hard objects. Dr. Newman hopes to complete these investigations as opportunity offers.
Mr. R. N. Robertson, Linnean Macleay Fellow in Botany, continued his investigations of the gas of the intercellular spaces of leaves and made progress on the problem of daylight movement of stomata and the changes of gas composition with change in external factors. Mr. Robertson was awarded a Science Scholarship by the Royal Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851, and resigned his Fellowship as from 31st July, 1936. He proceeded to Cambridge, where he will continue this work on plant physiology, in which we wish him every SUCCESS.
Miss Elizabeth Pope, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Socicty in Zoology, has carried out dissections of the Port Jackson Shark, and has completed studies of the external features and the exoskeleton. She has also made a study of the anatomy of the digestive system and discovered the presence of 9% spiral folds in the large intestine, and not 8% turns as stated by T. J. Parker. The muscle system and the nervous system have been studied and dissections of the blood vessels and skeleton are in progress. Miss Pope has carried out a preliminary survey of the Ecology of a certain area at Long Reef. Some definite idea of the animal communities has already been obtained and now it should be possible to work out some of their inter-relations. During the coming year Miss Pope proposes to continue the investigations on the Port Jackson Shark, and the ecological problems in connection with the work at Long Reef.
Six applications for Linnean Macleay Fellowships were received in response to the Council’s invitation of 30th September, 1936. I have pleasure in reminding
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. vii
you that the Council reappointed Dr. I. V. Newman and Miss Elizabeth C. Pope to Fellowships in Botany and Zoology respectively for one year from 1st March, 1937, and appointed Mr. Consett Davis, B.Sc., and Mr. A. H. Voisey, M.Sc., to Fellowships in Zoology and Geology respectively for one year from 1st March, 1937. Shortly after the announcement of these appointments, Dr. I. V. Newman was appointed Lecturer in Botany at Victoria University College, Wellington, N.Z., and resigned his Fellowship as from 30th November, 1936. The Council, there- upon, decided to invite applications from qualified candidates to fill the vacancy caused by Dr. Newman’s resignation. Three applications were received, and I have pleasure in announcing the appointment of Miss Ilma M. Pidgeon, B.Sc., to a Fellowship in Botany for the year 1937-88. We may wish all four Fellows a successful year’s work.
Mr. Consett Davis, after a distinguished course, graduated in Science with First Class Honours in Entomology (1934) and Botany (1935). During his Honours course he carried out research on the Australian Embioptera and on the Plant Ecology of the Bulli District, part of the results of which have already appeared in three papers in the Procrrpines for 1936. For his work as a Linnean Macleay Fellow he proposes to continue the work already commenced on the Embioptera, and also to work on the respiration of the Dryopidae, the wing venation of the Coleoptera and the anatomy of certain littoral Mollusca. As opportunity arises he proposes also to study the general ecology of the Five Islands.
Mr. A. H. Voisey gained First Class Honours and the University Medal in Heonomic Geology on graduation in Science in 1933 and also divided the John Coutts Scholarship. During his University course and subsequently, Mr. Voisey carried out a considerable amount of field investigation of the Upper Palaeozoic rocks of north-eastern New South Wales, and he has thrown much light on problems of the Carboniferous and Permian Systems which were hitherto obscure. Several papers embodying results of this work have already been published by our Society and by the Royal Societies of New South Wales and Queensland, resulting in Mr. Voisey obtaining the degree of M.Sc., from the University of Sydney in 1936. Mr. Voisey proposes to continue this work with the object of elucidating the structures in the Permian System and ultimately obtaining strati- graphical sequences which will permit of satisfactory correlation with the succes- sions in other parts of Eastern Australia and perhaps with extra-Australian successions.
Miss Ilma M. Pidgeon graduated in Science in the University of Sydney in 1936 with First Class Honours in Botany and was awarded a Government Science Research Scholarship in 1936. During her final year and subsequently she carried out work on the Ecology of the Hawkesbury Sandstone and Wianamatta Shale Formations of the Sydney District, and has completed one paper entitled ‘Plant Succession on the Hawkesbury Sandstone, Sydney District’, which has been submitted for publication. A second paper on “The Hucalyptus Forests of the Hawkesbury Sandstone” is approaching completion. She has also been working on the Eucalyptus Forest Associations on the Wianamatta Shales, and the nature and distribution of the brush forests. As a Fellow she proposed to extend the work on the Hucalyptus Forest Associations of sandstone and shale and to complete other aspects of the ecological work arising out of these studies.
viii PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE CAINOZOIC HRA IN NEW SOUTH WALES. Introduction.
For the scientific part of my address this evening I have chosen as my subject a review of the geological history of the Cainozoic Hra in New South Wales. A study of the published work on this subject shows that widely divergent views have been expressed by the various writers, and it seems desirable, therefore, to review the existing knowledge for the purpose of attempting to provide a more satisfactory account of our Cainozoic history.
The absence of fossiliferous marine strata of Cainozoic age in New South Wales, except for a small area in the south-west corner of the State, together with the unsatisfactory evidence of geological age afforded by our Cainozoic fossil plants, makes the accurate dating of such Cainozoic formations as do occur practically impossible. In Victoria, however, marine fossiliferous strata of Cainozoic age are widespread, and the association of these with other Cainozoic formations, such as the volcanic rocks and their associated deep-leads, gives more definite evidence of age than can be found in New South Wales; the writer has found it necessary, therefore, to make an attempt to correlate the Cainozoic formations of the two States in the hope that such a correlation would provide evidence lacking in New South Wales. With this object in view the published literature has been studied, certain areas in Victoria have been personally visited and, in addition, a number of features have been discussed with some Victorian colleagues who have cordially assisted in every way; in this connection I am particularly indebted to Messrs. W. Baragwanath, F. A. Singleton and R. A. Keble.
Previous Observers.
C. §S. Wilkinson (1882) and EH. F. Pittman (1908) published very brief summaries of the Cainozoic Hra in New South Wales, but the first real attempt to interpret the history of this era was that made by H. C. Andrews. He was the first geologist in Australia to study the origin of the existing land forms and use that study in the interpretation of its Tertiary and Post-Tertiary history; in making these physiographical studies he also, of course, made use of such direct geological evidence as was available. The result of his work was published in 1910 under the title of the Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia in late Tertiary and Post-Tertiary Time (Andrews, 1910). His methods and conclusions met with much criticism at the time and even to-day there are some Australian geologists who disagree with some of his most important conclusions, but in the writer’s opinion his interpretation of our Cainozoic history has proved to be thoroughly sound and, apart from some very minor modifications, the succession of events postulated by him and the geological ages assigned to them have proved to be correct. In 1911 the present writer in his book on the Geology of New South Wales (Sussmilch, 1911) gave a fairly detailed description of the Tertiary formation of New South Wales, the chronological succession adopted being based on Andrews’ published work of the previous year; and in 1925 (Sussmilch, 1925) published a brief description of the topographical features of New South Wales, which included a table showing the more important events of the Cainozoic. Era arranged in chronological order.
T. W. E. David (1914), in a summary of the geology of Australia, included a brief chapter on the Tertiary Period, and in his Explanatory Notes to accompany a new Geological Map of Australia (David, 1932) included a fairly detailed
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summary of the Cainozoic Era; in this account his dating of some of the formations differs somewhat widely from that of previous writers.
R. Henry Walcott (1920) contributed a very useful paper dealing with the evidence of age of some Australian gold-drifts, in which he reviews the whole of the existing literature relating to this subject for both Victoria and New South Wales; he gives full lists of the fossil plants and a very useful list of references.
F. Chapman and F. A. Singleton (1925) published a very useful summary of the Tertiary Deposits of Australia, which deals with both the marine and non- marine formations and includes a very complete bibliography.
A study of the above and other publications on this subject shows that wide differences of opinion exist, not only as to the order of succession of events which took place during the Cainozoic Hra, but also as to their actual geological age.
The interpretation of our Cainozoic history depends upon the following evidences: (1). The Fuviatile Deposits; (2). The Volcanic Rocks; (3). The Marine Formations; (4). The Existing Land-forms.
The Fluviatile Deposits of New South Wales.
At many places in New South Wales old river-channels of Tertiary age are found partly filled with deposits of alluvium consisting of river gravels covered by layers of sand and clay and, in some cases, beds of lignite. The bottom gravels of many of these old river-channels contain alluvial gold, tinstone, gem-stones, etc., and are known to the alluvial miner as “deep-leads’. These fluviatile deposits are usually well stratified and at most localities contain fossil fruits or fossil leaves or, in some cases, both. At nearly all localities the alluvial deposits are covered by contemporaneous flows of basalt and, in some instances, basalt flows are actually interstratified with the fluviatile deposits. Similar deposits also occur in Queens- land and in Victoria. A brief description of the best known of these deposits is desirable and all of those selected for this purpose in this State have been visited by the writer.
(a) The Emmaville (Vegetable Creek) Leads—These occur on the New England Tableland in northern New South Wales, not very far from the Queens- land border; they were first described in detail by T. W. E. David (1887), and further descriptions were given by J. E. Carne (1911); as they have been described in full detail they may be taken as a type of our Tertiary fluviatile deposits and described more fully than those which follow. The Tableland at Hmmaville has an altitude of about 2,900 feet and consists dominantly of granites and quartz- porphyries, with which are associated subordinate areas of highly folded Upper Palaeozoic strata; the surface of the tableiand is a peneplain cut out of these rocks. Rising above the general level of the tableland is a monadnock called Mt. Battery, 3,970 feet in altitude, a residual of the older tableland, out of which the peneplain was developed.
The fluviatile deposits and their associated lava flows lie in shallow valleys about 300 feet deep incised in the surface of the tableland; a section of these deposits showing their mode of occurrence is given in Figure 1. Two basalt-covered leads, the Vegetable Creek Lead and the Graveyard Lead, are shown in this section. At the right of the section is shown the valley of the Severn River, cut out during the present cycle of erosion subsequent to the uplift of the tableland; it will be seen that the development of this present-day valley has partly cut away one of the valley walls of the old lead channel.
B
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In describing these leads, David has shown that the fluviatile deposits under- lying the basalts range from 25 feet to 79 feet in thickness, while the basalts range up to 200 feet in thickness; he has also shown that there are two separate flows of basalt, with evidence of an erosion interval between them; he states that: “In Skinner’s Rock shaft there is conclusive proof of at least two flows of basalt belonging to different periods. This shaft was sunk through 100 feet of soft basalt on to beds of fine sand and clay 25 feet thick and the latter was found to rest upon the waterworn surface of hard basalt.” David considered that the erosion interval between the two basalt-flows represented a long period of time, and he placed the main auriferous lead with its basalt cover in the Hocene Period, while the overlying 25 feet of alluvium with its covering flow of basalt was considered to be as young as Miocene or even Pliocene. In his latest writing on this subject (David, 1932) he places the older deposits in the Oligocene and the newer in (?) the Miocene Period.
A study of David’s sections will show that, even allowing for the erosion interval between the two basalt-flows, there is no valid reason why the whole series could not have been deposited not only in one geological period but even in part of a period. J. EH. Carne was evidently of this opinion because, in the geological map which accompanied his report on the Emmaville tinfield in 1911, all of these deposits are included in the Hocene Period.
A large number of fossil leaves have been obtained from these fluviatile deposits and these have been described by Baron von Httingshausen (1888); he described 60 different species from the Old Rose Valley lead and 35 species from Witherden’s Tunnel; both of these localities are from the same horizon, i.e., under the lower basalt-flow, yet only one of the 95 species described is common to the two localities. Sixteen species were described from Fox and Partridge’s claim, obtained from a shallow lead above the lower basalt-flow, none of which is listed from the localities previously mentioned. However, from collections of fossil leaves obtained from one and the same lead at Newstead, near Hlsmore, about 20 miles from Hmmaville, 30 species have been described by EHEttingshausen and others. Twenty-one of these species occur in Httingshausen’s lists from Hmmaville, eight from the Old Rose Valley lead, nine from Witherden’s Tunnel, and four from Fox and Partridge’s. There seems no doubt, therefore, that the fossil plants obtained from Emmaville all belong to one and the same fossil flora. Ettingshausen was of opinion that this flora deviates strikingly from the present-day flora and assigned a Lower Eocene age to it; these opinions will be discussed in a later section.
The history revealed by the Emmaville leads and their associated land-forms indicates the following stages of development:
Development of a peneplain at sea-level; Elevation of this peneplain by about 300 feet; Development of valleys to a depth of 300 feet; The partial filling of these valleys with the fluviatile deposits and lava flows; Continuation of valley development with the production of a system of shallow mature valleys alike in the basalts and older rocks; 6. An uplift of about 2,900 feet to produce the existing tablelands; 7. Cutting out of the valleys of the present cycle of erosion.
(b) The Gulgong Leads.—These occur near the village of Gulgong, on a table-
land with an altitude of about 1,600 feet; the surface of this tableland is a
Lag) RO
ol
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xi
peneplain cut out of a series of highly-folded Palaeozoic strata and their associated plutonic intrusions. The leads occur in shallow valleys incised in the surface of this peneplain and are, for the most part, covered by basalt-flows; the fluviatile deposits range from a few feet up to 200 feet in thickness, while the basalts range up to 130 feet thick. Fossil fruits were obtained from the Home Rule Lead at a depth of 126 feet; these were described by von Mueller (1876) and referred to the Pliocene Period. C. S. Wilkinson (1878) reported that some bones of fossil vertebrates had been obtained from the Magpie Lead at a depth of about 40 feet, and included remains of Diprotodon, Halmaturus and Macropus.
SECTION AT EMMAVILLE (T.W.e. DAVID)
VEGETABLE CREEK LEAD GRAVEYARD LEAD
Old Timber. Thin Veins Thin Veins Shaft ¢7ft. Ue HEE Gra eg ard of Tin Stone ———s
x.
S g Sdivoni TAN ZL =SSSAN DSTONE~
© 20 40 60 80 100 Chains ° 200 400 600 800 jooo Feet
Horizontal Scale Vertical Scale
SECTION ACROSS FOREST REEFS GOLD FIELD (rv.t.srown)
( Basalt
PTT ES <9 ip sit DAS) A A p a i) SD RSS
LLP ZL SILURIAN 7S! 9 LIME STONE eis wane
2 to) 40 80 20 Feet ° 1000 2000 3000 Feet
Horizontal Scale Vertical Scale =
SECTION AT WINGELLO (J.B. JAQUET )
a
pI
Forest Reefs Lumpy Lead pBecalls overlying fluviatile deposits
( 1 2
Oatum 2000ft above sea level
3
° 8 16 24 Chains ° 200 400 600 Feet
Horizontal Scale Vertical Scale
(c) The Forest Reefs Leads.—These occur on the Central Tableland of New South Wales not many miles from the town of Orange, and have been described by H. Y. L. Brown (1882); a section showing their occurrence is given in Figure 2; it will be seen from this that the surface of the tableland here is a peneplain cut out of highly-folded Lower Palaeozoic strata intruded by basic granites and porphyries; incised in its surface are a number of Tertiary stream channels now partly filled with fluviatile deposits covered by basalt lava flows, the latter ranging up to 200 feet in thickness. The alluvial deposits have yielded fossil fruits similar to those obtained at Gulgong.
(d) The Warrumbungle Mt. Leaf-Beds.—At the Warrumbungle Mountains, near Coonabarabran, thin beds of sand and clay have been found interstratified with trachyte lava flows. The extinct volcanoes, of which these lava flows form a part, stand upon a tableland about 2,000 feet in altitude. Fossil leaves have been
§ (Hawkesbury Sandstone
yee ey
Sat) PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
obtained from the shale beds and described by Henry Deane (1907), who states that “the leaves are somewhat similar in character to many of those described by Ettingshausen from the deposits from Dalton and Vegetable Creek’.
(e) The Wingello Leaf-Beds—These occur near the village of Wingello, on the Mittagong-Marulan Tableland at an altitude of 2,200—2,300 feet, the surface of which at this locality consists of Triassic sandstones (Hawkesbury Sandstones), and have been described by J. B. Jaquet (1901). The fluviatile deposits consist of ferruginous shales, sandy claystones and coarse-grained sands, deposited in shallow valleys, about 300 feet deep, cut into the Hawkesbury Sandstones, as shown in Figure 3. They are covered in part by basalt-flows and have yielded fossil leaves which have been described by Henry Deane and obviously belong to the same fossil flora as that obtained from Dalton and Emmaville.
(f) The Leaf-Beds at Dalton.—These occur at the village of Dalton, about 7 miles from the township of Gunning. The country here consists of a tableland with a general altitude of about 1,900 feet. The surface of the tableland is a peneplain cut out of a series of highly-folded Silurian strata intruded by granite. Traversing the surface of the tableland is a series of mature valleys about 300 to 400 feet deep and with aggraded floors. Typical examples of these mature valleys are given in Plate A. At Dalton deposits of cemented siliceous gravels and .; sands occur some 50 feet above the floor of the valley and these contain abundant fossil leaves. These have been described by Ettingshausen (1888) (27 species) and referred by him to the Eocene Period.
(9g) The Kiandra Leads.—These occur near the village of Kiandra on the Southern Tableland and have been described in detail by E. C. Andrews (1901). The tableland here has an altitude of over 5,000 feet and its surface is a peneplain cut out of highly-folded Lower Palaeozoic sediments (tuffs and slates) with granite and syenite intrusions; above the tableland surface rise monadnocks, such as Governor’s Hill (5,723 feet), residuals of the older tableland out of which the peneplain has been eroded. The leads lie in shallow valleys cut into the peneplain surface and consist of river gravels covered by layers of sand, clay and lignite ranging up to 150 feet in thickness, the whole covered by a flow of basalt. The main lead has been traced for a distance of about 20 miles and lies in a rock channel about 10 chains in width. Present-day streams have cut their channels on either side and well below the base of the lead, so that it now occurs on top of a ridge; the upper surface of the basalt is, however, somewhat below the general level of the tableland. No fossil leaves or fruits have been described from this lead. Since its uplift, the Kiandra tableland has been deeply dissected; at the fifteen-mile the Tumut River is entrenched in a gorge 2,500 feet deep, and where this stream joins the Yarrangobilly River the gorge is 3,600 feet deep.
From the descriptions given it will be seen that all of these fluviatile deposits, with their associated basalts, are similar in their geological characters and in their physiographical setting; they differ only in the altitude of the tableland upon which they rest; they would therefore appear to be all of the same geological age.
The Fluviatile Deposits of Victoria.
It is proposed in this section to describe briefly some of the Tertiary fluviatile deposits of Victoria for the purpose of showing their close relationship to those of New South Wales as well as their relationships to one another.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Xili
I. Hastern Victoria.
(a) The Leads of the Bogong and Dargo High Plains (Victoria).—These occur in Eastern Victoria not many miles'from the New South Wales border, and have been described by Stanley Hunter (1909). Their physiographic setting is identical with that of the various leads described from New South Wales; the tableland on which they occur has a general altitude of about 6,000 feet, but appears to have a definite southerly tilt. The surface of this tableland is a peneplain cut out of Lower Palaeozoic strata, and lying in shallow valleys cut into this peneplain surface are fluviatile deposits covered by sheets of basalt. The higher points of the tableland, such as Mt. Feathertop (6,303 feet), Mt. Fainter (6,160 feet), Mt. Hotham (6,101 feet) and Mt. Cope (6,015 feet) all occur in the older rocks.
The basalts to-day cover a series of disconnected areas on or near the main divide, and these areas are so level as compared with the rugged topography which surrounds them that the more extensive areas are known as plains such as the Bogong High Plains, the Baw Baw Plains and the Dargo High Plains. The basalts reach an altitude of 5,935 feet at the northern end of the area (Bogong High Plains), the altitude decreasing to 4,400 feet at the south end of the Dargo High
SECTION ACROSS DARGO HIGH PLAIN (S. HUNTER)
-Basalts overlying fluviatile deposits
W. / / ry dts
Hee} fae / fe / iff ( i
y, v7. eff : J y / a Oh Te WE of
U, fi ji. y, vi y Vi ; j yf IG WA y/ y / / y, , Yi fe / ORDOVICIAN SHALES & SANDSTONES ee tox
Datum 2500Ft above sea Jeve/
4 fo} 3000 6000 sooo Feet ° 1000 2000 3000 Feet eS! Horizontal Scale Vertical Scale
SECTION ACROSS GOLDEN POINT LEAD, BALLARAT (H. BARAGWANATH)
Basalts overlying rfluviatile deposits Golden Point Lead Yarrowee Ck
FEES he
TLOCEP Pec re eer Reon Tr Pa Loot 7 COO Tr = /
!]]
ORDOVICIAN SHALES ETS
5 ° 16 32 48 Chains Natural Scale BS es A Ads Kt 6 Oy LENS) INS CZ AT B F SD we S S
ine 47 Awe
\N
F F 8 B N
c P j ANS
ATION Atti S at LTR C NW ) D SST NACLANIE SS a“ SEDIMENTARY. ROCKS TESS SUPT eG eG ISS VSS SPOUSES ES N TSS NM SD Sr Fe Lbs TS es West ~S ISS \ OS Xo NT SRSA
A. Residuals. B, Younger Peneplain. C,Upland Valley. 0D, Present day Valley. E, Monadnock Basalts. fF, Plateau Basalts.
Fig. 6.—Ideal section across tableland, showing main physiographical features.
Xiv PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
Plains, a decrease in altitude of 1,500 feet in a distance of about 22 miles, suggesting that the tableland was tilted during its uplift.
A study of Stanley B. Hunter’s sections (1909) on the State Geological Map of the Dargo High Plains (see Fig. 4) shows that the fluviatile deposits with their basalt cover are similar in all respects to those occurring in New South Wales, while the tableland on which they occur has suffered a similar deep dissection to that of the Kiandra Tableland of New South Wales.
Fossil leaves have been obtained from these deposits and were described by F. McCoy (1876) who considered them to be of Lower Miocene age, and it is upon this evidence apparently that these deposits have since been referred by most Victorian geologists to the Miocene Period and the basalts referred to the Older Basalt Series of Victoria.
(bo) Aberfeldy.—The geology and physiography of this area have been fully described by H. Baragwanath (1925); according to his description there is in this district a much dissected tableland ranging from 3,260 to 3,500 feet in altitude, but with a definite tilt towards the south; the one-time surface of the tableland is a peneplain cut out of Ordovician strata. Rising above the level of this peneplain are two residuals, Mt. Baw Baw (5,130 ft.) and Mt. Useful (4,765 ft.); these are remnants of the older tableland out of which the peneplain was eroded. The two main rivers of the district are the Aberfeldy and Thompson Rivers, and the divide between these two streams is capped at intervals along a distance of about 20 miles by patches of basalt, under which in places occur river gravels. No fossil plants have been described for these deposits. The physio- graphic setting here is very similar to that of the Dargo High Plains.
(c) The Tangil Lead.—This has been described by R. A. Murray (1880) and eccurs on the divide between the Tangil and Latrobe Rivers. The fluviatile deposits here are about 40 feet thick and are capped with basalt, and from the lead fossil fruits (Murray, 1887) have been obtained. These basalts were originally classed as Newer Basalts by R. Brough Smyth (1874) because some of the fossil fruits found were identical with those found in the Haddon Lead in the Ballarat District, but later S. Hunter (1909) referred them to the Older Basalts (Miocene) because he considered the physiographic setting of the Tangil lead to be similar to that of the Dargo High Plains.
(ad) Tangil East and Narracan.—The geology of this region has been described in detail by H. Herman (1922), and from his description the following important features stand out:
1. The presence of a well-developed peneplain cut out of Silurian and Jurassic strata;
2. The deposition on this peneplain of the following Tertiary formations: firstly, fluviatile deposits consisting of quartz gravels, micaceous sands and beds of lignite, followed, secondly, by basaltic lava-flows ranging from 300 to 500 feet in thickness and, thirdly, deposited upon these basalts are fluviatile deposits (perhaps lacustrine in part) consisting of sands, clays and ferruginous conglomerates with a maximum thick- ness of 100 feet.
Herman, following the general practice, referred the basalts to the Older Basalt Series of Miocene age and the underlying fluviatile deposits were considered to be of Miocene, Oligocene or Eocene age. At Narracan, in the southern part of the area, these fluviatile deposits have yielded fossil leaves which have been described by F. Chapman (1926), and his list of genera is included in Table IJ; this fossil flora was considered by him to be the same as that obtained from the
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XV
Dargo, Berwick, Bacchus Marsh and Pitfield localities. The fluviatile beds over- lying the basalts were doubtfully referred by Herman to the Pliocene period; they have yielded no fossils. In speaking of these latter beds Herman states: “These deposits are evidently of fluviatile and in part at least of lacustrine origin. They were laid upon the flattened surface following the filling of the (?) Miocene river valleys by the volcanic accumulations.” Herman’s sections show very clearly that the peneplain, with its covering of Tertiary deposits, was subsequently uplifted to form the existing tabieland ranging up to 1,200 feet in altitude and that the uplift was a differential one accompanied by faulting and the tilting of the faulted blocks.
(e) Morweil—From the adjoining district of Morwell Herman (1922) has recorded the existence of a freshwater series consisting of sands, clays and lignites with a thickness of upwards of 1,000 feet; of this thickness 780 feet consist of lignites. No marine strata are associated with these beds. At Yallourn the topmost beds have yielded fossil leaves which have been described by H. Deane.
This freshwater series has been termed the Yallournian by F. A. Singleton (1935), and he states that ‘‘though these coals have been referred to the Miocene they appear to pass easterly, as shown by borings, beneath the Barwonian marine sediments of Hast Gippsland whose lowest portion is not younger than the L. Miocene and may even be Upper Oligocene’; he states further that ‘‘the aspect of the flora which includes at Morwell (Yallourn) Banksia, Dryandra, Lomatia, Cinnamomum, Phyllocladus and Ginkgo suggests it is not older than Oligocene”.
It has been well established by borings that lignites do occur under the Lower Miocene marine strata of Hast Gippsland (Chapman and Crespin, 1932) at depths of upwards of 1,000 feet, but these lignite beds are of no great thickness. More recent borings in East Gippsland have also proved the existence of lignites above Miocene marine strata, showing that the lignites are not limited to one horizon. In the Parish of Glencoe, some 30-35 miles east of Yallourn, logs of bores show the presence of lignite, 70 feet in thickness, beneath the earliest marine beds at depths of from 1,200 to 1,400 feet. It is quite possible that these lignites are directly connected with the lowermost freshwater beds at Morwell, but that does not mean that the whole of the Yallournian series dips below the oldest of the marine beds. The freshwater beds at Morwell and the marine beds in the Parish of Glencoe are still practically horizontal, and it is difficult to imagine how the former could dip under the latter as has been suggested by Singleton. There is, further, no proof that any marine strata have ever existed above the Morwell lignites; these latter are very hydrous, containing up to 60% of water, and they could hardly have retained that amount of water if they had ever been overlain by a thick series of marine beds.
The occurrence of lignites above marine strata of Miocene age, as well as their occurrence below them, shows that there is an interdigitation of marine and freshwater beds in this part of Victoria, and it would appear probable that a continuous deposition of freshwater beds was going on at Morwell simultaneously with the deposition of marine strata elsewhere. The thickness of the Yallournian at Morwell is similar to that of the marine series in Hast Gippsland, and the deposition of the one would surely demand at least as great a period of time as that of the other.
With these facts in view there would seem to be no reason why the topmost beds at Yallourn, which contain the fossil plants, might not be as young as Lower Pliocene in age. It might also be noted that H. Herman (1922) states that “the
xvi PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
great mass of the Latrobe Valley brown coals appear to be stratigraphically superior to extensive sheets of the ‘Older Basalt’ ’’.
(f) Berwick.—This locality lies some distance to the west of Morwell, and here again fluviatile beds containing fossil leaves are found underlying basalts, both resting upon Lower Palaeozoic strata. The basalts have been referred to the Older Basalt Series, but the only proof of their age is the underlying fossil plants which are listed in Table I, which were described by H. Deane (1902).
II. Western Victoria.
Basalt-covered fluviatile deposits similar in character to those just described are extensively developed in Western Victoria.
A. Bacchus Marsh.—This lies at the eastern margin of the Ballarat Table- land and there occurs here a series of fiuviatile deposits underlying the Newer Basalts which have been described by R. Brough Smyth (1874) as follows: ‘At Bacchus Marsh conglomerates, sandy clays and beds of ironstone ranging up to 200 feet in thickness are seen overlying an older volcanic rock such as that occurring at Melbourne, Flemington, etc. The ironstone bands and ferruginous sandstones are full of the impressions of dicotyledonous leaves.” The fossil leaves that have been described are listed in Table I. These freshwater beds are in turn overlain by basalts (Newer Basalts).
An excellent account of the physiography of this area has been published by C. Fenner (1918).
B. The Ballarat District—The geology and physiography of this region have been described in detail by H. Baragwanath (1923); he shows it to consist of a tableland with an elevation of 1,500-1,600 feet, the surface being a peneplain cut out of Lower Palaeozoic formations. Incised into the surface of this peneplain is a series of broad valleys up to 500 feet in depth which are almost filled with a succession of fluviatile deposits and lava flows (see Figure 5). At Ballarat, above the lowest gravels, there are found four basalt-flows with interstratified fluviatile deposits. Subsequently to the outpouring of these basalts, a series of wide shallow mature valleys were cut out alike in the basalt and older rocks. At Haddon (Smyth, 1874) the lead underlying the basalt has yielded fossil fruits and fossil leaves, while at Guildford (Smyth, 1875) specimens of both fossil leaves and fossil fruits have been obtained from a lead in the Meins Freehold Goldmining Co. property, Guildford, at a depth of 198 feet below the surface (Smyth, 1874).
C. Pitfield—This occurs on the southern margin of the Ballarat District and here the fluviatile deposits and their associated basalts rest upon marine strata of Tertiary age. These conditions at this locality have been described by Stanley Hunter who wrote (1909) as follows: “Bores put down show that there are three distinct flows of basalt; between the 1st and 2nd flows lay lignitiferous clays containing Tertiary leaves, between the 2nd and 3rd flows was wash similar to that taken out elsewhere at Pitfield and which Mr. E. Lidgey considers to be L. Pliocene.” Hunter states further that the bores passed a foot or so into under- lying marine beds of supposed Eocene age, but the age of these marine beds has since been determined by F. A. Singleton (1935) as being Lower Miocene. The fossil leaves referred to have been described by Henry Deane (1902) and are listed in Table I.
It will be seen from the descriptions given that the fluviatile deposits and associated basalts of Western Victoria (Bacchus Marsh, Ballarat and Pitfield) are quite similar in their nature and mode of occurrence to those of Hastern Victoria
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XVii
(Dargo, Aberfeldy, Tangil and Narracan), that both regions have yielded a similar fossil flora (leaves and fruits), and that in both regions the physiographic setting is the same, and this surely is sufficient evidence for considering them to be of the same geological age. Yet most observers have considered those of Eastern Victoria to be of Lower Tertiary age and those of Western Victoria to be of Upper Tertiary age.
It is also obvious from the descriptions given that the Tertiary fluviatile deposits of New South Wales, with their associated basalts, are similar in every way to those of Victoria. The one point of real difference between the various localities in both States is the elevation at which they stand to-day; both the geological and the physiographical evidence indicate that these Tertiary deposits were laid down on a peneplain elevated only a few hundreds of feet above sea-level and that, subsequent to their deposition, both peneplain and Tertiary deposits were elevated to form the present-day tablelands—probably at the close of the Tertiary Era; the fact that the elevation was a differential one accounts for the present difference in elevation at the various localities which have been described. The high altitude of the Tertiary formations on the Dargo High Plains (6,000 feet), together with the profound gorges which surround them, may have suggested to some of the earlier workers a high geological antiquity as compared with the Ballarat occurrences, where dissection, owing to the lower elevation (1,600 feet), is not so striking, but the difference is only one of altitude; the dissection of the Ballarat Tableland at Bacchus Marsh is at a similar stage of development to that of the Dargo High Plains. One concludes, therefore, that the Tertiary formations of New South Wales and those of Eastern and Western Victoria described here are all of one and the same geological age.
The Cainozoic Fossil Flora.
From the fluviatile deposits described in the last section there has been obtained a number of fossil plants, including (a) fossil leaves, (0) fossil fruits; the latter have been obtained from the coarse gravels at or near the base of the deposits, while the fossil leaves have been obtained from beds of clay overlying the gravels. The leaves and fruits have rarely both been obtained from the same leads.
(a) The Fossil Leaves.—A large number of fossil leaves obtained from (1) the Emmaville District and (2) the Dalton District have been described by Ettings- hausen (1888), and were considered by him to be of Hocene age. Httingshausen considered these fossil plants to represent a mixed flora consisting partly of species related to plants still living in Australia and partly of genera and species whose nearest allies were to be found in fossil plants from countries other than Australia. Among the former he described species of Callitris, Dammara, Phyllocladus, Casuarina, Santalum, Persoonia, Grevillea, Hakea, Lomatia, Dryandra, Caricoma, Ceratopetalum, Boronia and Hucalyptus, and considered these to be more or less closely related to living Australian forms. With regard to those he considered to be foreign, he referred them to such genera as Sequoia, Myrica, Alnus, Quercus, Cinnamomum, Sassafras, Aralia, Eleocarpus, Acer and Copaifera, and considered the nearest relations of some of them to be species found in Europe and America, with geological ages varying from Cretaceous to Miocene; it is upon this evidence apparently that he gives an Hocene age to these fossils.
Ettingshausen’s determinations have been severely criticized by Henry Deane, who (1896) wrote as follows: “I have carefully looked into the matter of the
xviii PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
Dalton and Vegetable Creek fossils, and I cannot agree with the crucial deter- minations as to the character of the flora, and its resemblances to the flora of other parts of the world are utterly wrong. With the aid of R. T. Baker I have made comparisons with the fossil leaves and living ones, and so far as I have gone the various types of fossil leaves are represented among existing plants and there is no need to go outside Australia to look for them.” In his paper Deane gives examples of some of what he considers to be Httingshausen’s faulty determinations, and points out that all or nearly all of the fossil leaves described possess the form and character of existing plants living in the “brush forests” of Hastern Australia.
Deane (1900) returns to the attack after he had made a study of the fossil leaves from Vegetable Creek (Emmaville), Gunning, Wingello and Bacchus Marsh (Victoria), and reaffirms his previous view that all of the species are closely related to existing Australian plants. He draws attention to the difficulty of determining which existing plant a particular fossil leaf really resembles, and states that it may resemble those of half a dozen plants belonging to widely different groups.
R. H. Walcott (1920) has also questioned the value of these fossil leaves as an evidence of geological age, and states that “when living species are never determined by leaves alone, notwithstanding that they may be procured in abundance and in perfect condition, it seems to be rather unwise for stratigraphical purposes to place too much reliance upon specific determinations made from the examination of perhaps imperfect fossil leaves or specimens of wood in various conditions of preservation”’.
The above criticisms not only apply to Ettingshausen’s determinaitons of New South Wales fossil leaves, but apply equally to McCoy’s determinations of geologic age of similar fossil leaves obtained from the deep-leads of Victoria, determinations which are apparently still being adhered to by workers in that State. It is worthy of note that Baron von Mueller, one of the most eminent botanists of his day, always refused to have anything to do with the determination of fossil leaves.
In view of the above facts, the decisions of both Ettingshausen and McCoy as to the Hocene-Lower Miocene age of the Australian Tertiary fossil leaves cannot be accepted as reliable and, in view of the evidence put forward by Deane that they are closely related to forms still living in the “brush forests” of to-day, it is quite possible that they are no older than Pliocene in age.
Henry Deane, in criticizing the determinations of Ettingshausen and McCoy, did not carry his views to their logical conclusion, because when he later described some Tertiary fossil leaves from New South Wales and Victoria he referred them to the Lower Tertiary. Deane as a botanist was primarily concerned with the correct botanical classification of his specimens and apparently accepted the views of the geologists of his day as to the Lower Tertiary age of the leads without question, apparently overlooking the fact that their opinions as to age, at least with regard to some of the leads, had been based on McCoy’s determinations of the Lower Miocene age of the fossil plants.
(b) The Fossil Fruits—These were described by von Mueller (1874) and considered by him to be of Pliocene age, and that determination has generally been accepted by later writers. Some confusion of thought has been brought about by the fact that fossil leaves and fossil fruits have usually not been found in one and the same lead, and this has been accepted as further proof that the
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. SX
leads containing the fossil leaves were geologically older than those containing the fossil fruits. However, both fossil leaves and fossil fruits have been recorded as having been obtained from some of the leads in the Ballarat district. Fossil leaves and fossil fruits have also been obtained from the same deposit at Sandy Bay, near Hobart, Tasmania (Wilkinson, 1882), and their association at other localities in Tasmania has been recorded by R. M. Johnston (1879).
There is a possible explanation as to why both leaves and fruits are not usually found together. Records show that the fossil fruits have usually been obtained from the coarse gravels in the deepest part of the old river-channel, conditions quite unsuitable for the preservation of leaves; these gravels are usually highly charged with water, conditions which seem to have been particularly favourable for the preservation of the fruits, because when such fossil fruits are removed from the leads they quickly disintegrate unless preserved under water or some other liquid; at any rate that has been the writer’s experience. The fossil leaves, on the other hand, have usually been obtained from beds of fine sediment situated some distance above the main gutter in which the gravels occur, conditions which may not be entirely favourable for the preservation of the fruits.
In the Ballarat District of Victoria fossil fruits and leaves have been obtained from the Haddon Lead, whereas fossil leaves only have been found in the leads at Pitfield; both series of leads occur under the same series of basalts (the Newer Basalts) and are undoubtedly of the same geological age. Fossil leaves have also been obtained from the fluviatile deposits which occur under the Newer Basalts at Bacchus Marsh, and these beds have always been considered to be of Pliocene age. Similarly, in Eastern Victoria fossil fruits have been obtained from the Tangil Lead, whereas fossil leaves have been obtained from the fluviatile beds at Narracan, in both cases under the same series of basalts, but these basalts have always in the past been referred to the older basalt series (Older Basalts) considered to be of Oligocene or Lower Miocene age, apparently on the evidence of the fossil leaves. It seems quite certain that the fluviatile beds of Tangil and Narracan are of the same geological age.
R. A. Murray (1880) came up against this difficulty when describing the Tangil Lead, and made the following remarks: “It may be noted that some of the species of fossil fruits described by Baron von Miiller are common to both Miocene and Pliocene drift, specimens having been found in the gravels beneath the .Older Basalt at Tangil precisely identical in species with some obtained from the lead gravels beneath the Newer Basalt at Haddon.” Smyth (1874) had previously referred the basalts at Tangil to the Newer Basalts, and had correlated the underlying leads with the leaf-beds at Bacchus Marsh; but Murray referred the Tangil basalts to the Older Basalts because their mode of occurrence and the physiography of the surrounding country resembled that of the basalts of the Dargo and Bogong Plains, which were and are still considered in Victoria to be Older Basalts, presumably because of McCoy’s determination of the Lower Miocene age of the underlying plant beds.
Fossil leaves have been described from a number of localities in Victoria, the more important of which are tabulated below; in this table the names of the genera only are given, as the writer places very little reliance upon the deter- minations of species from such material; however, had the species also been given it would have made very little difference to the result. Those of the Victorian genera which have been recorded also for New South Wales are indicated in the right-hand column.
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TABLE I.—Fossil Leaves recorded from Victoria. ‘ Dargo. Narracan. Morwell. Berwick. Bacchus Marsh. Pitfield. N.S.W. DS x xX
Cinnamomum ..... WGAUGUS ees neyen IAI CUS aynccnayeencuereterenene NGASELA Faria arate eae IDKCRVRAOUOS soaccéc SSC WUNEY So Gancoue Mristanitesmre see Hedycarya ....... Mollenedial js 5546 IMCGOINOGN “So aon00¢ Nothofagus ....... Argophyllites Daphnandra ...... Carpolithes ss ss2.- IDDOAADMWE, sooocc06 INeph elites =. .4 -4- IPAMACIOAS saccoccc TECOSPOGUMUN eee Woma bia eect IDHAUIAS “sooasacoc Apocynophyllum (Banksia eaves eee Dryandra a Gink Owe ceteris Phyllocladus ......
After allowing for incomplete collecting, particularly from some of the localities, there would seem to be little doubt that these genera all belong to one and the same Tertiary flora, a view which appears to be generally accepted. As the genus Cinnamomum appears to be the most widespread of these genera, it will be convenient to refer to this flora as the Cinnamomum Flora.
It has already been shown that there is strong evidence in favour of the belief that both the fossil fruits and the fossil leaves have been derived from deposits of the same geological age; the fossil fruits were referred by Baron von Mueller to the Lower Pliocene, and a Pliocene age has since been generally accepted for them; the fossil leaves, on the other hand, have been given ages ranging from Hocene to Pliocene, according to the locality from which they have been obtained; those found under basalts believed to belong to the Older Basalt series were considered to be Oligocene or Lower Miocene in age, whereas those occurring under basalts hkelieved to belong to the Newer Basalt Series were considered to be Pliocene in age. The value of the comparisons made by Ettingshausen and McCoy with plants of Cretaceous, Eocene and Miocene ages in other continents is very doubtful. Henry Deane has repeatedly referred to the close resemblance of these fossil plants to plants living in our present-day “brush forests’, and there appears to be no reason, therefore, why these fossil leaves may not be as young as Lower Pliocene, that is, the same age as has generally been accepted for the fossil fruits; other evidence in support of this will be referred to later.
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The Marine Formations of New South Wales.
Strata of marine origin are limited in New South Wales to a small area in the south-western corner of the State; they do not outcrop at the surface, being covered by more recent deposits, and such knowledge as we have of them is limited to information obtained from bore-holes put down in search of artesian water. A bore-hole at Arumpo has penetrated these beds to a depth of 647 feet, showing that they are upwards of 600 feet in thickness.
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The Marine formations of Tertiary age in Australia have been classified by Messrs. Chapman and Singleton (1923) as follows: Upper Pliocene—Werrikooian Series. Lower Pliocene—Kalimnan Series. Upper Miocene—poorly developed. Middle Miocene—polyzoal limestones of HE. Gippsland. Lower Miocene—Janjukian Series (and Barwonian Series). Upper Oligocene—Balcombian Series. The marine strata of south-western New South Wales have been referred by Chapman and Singleton mainly to the Janjukian, extending perhaps into the lower part of the Kalimnan Series.
Relation of the Terrestrial and Marine Formations.
In view of the unsatisfactory evidence of geological age afforded by the Tertiary fossil plants, it becomes necessary to find out what evidence can be obtained from the association of the terrestrial formations with the Tertiary marine beds.
No association of terrestrial and marine formations has been found so far in New South Wales, but fortunately the two have been found in association at several localities in Victoria.
(a) Pitfield Plains—The conditions at this locality have already been described, and it has been shown that the fluviatile deposits containing fossil leaves and the associated lava-flows overlie marine strata of Janjukian age (Lower Miocene) ; obviously here the former are younger than the latter, but the question is how much younger? The fluviatile deposits could not have been deposited in the sea, and it would appear to be obvious that subsequent to their deposition the marine deposits must have been elevated and the sea-bed converted into dry land before the fluviatile beds were deposited. At no very great distance to the north, on the Ballarat Tableland, similar fluviatile deposits and their associated basaltic lava flows were deposited in definite valleys ranging up to 500 feet in depth, incised into an uplifted peneplain; it is not unreasonable to assume that these valleys continued southwards into the uplifted marine strata at Pitfield Plains and that the fluviatile beds, therefore, were deposited in actual valleys, not necessarily as deep as those at Ballarat. If this supposition is correct it implies that a consider- able interval, accompanied by uplift and subsequent denudation, elapsed between the deposition respectively of the marine strata and the fluviatile strata. Support for this view is supplied by geological sections in the valley of the Moorabool River some distance to the east of Pitfield Plains. The geology of this region has been described by Hall and Pritchard (1897), who, in their geological sections, show the Newer Basalts, the same basalts as those occurring at Pitfield Plains, resting unconformably upon an eroded surface of the underlying Janjukian marine beds.
The evidence from these two localities shows that the leaf-bearing fiuviatile deposits and their associated lava flows are definitely younger than Lower Miocene and quite possibly as young as Pliocene.
(b) The Hamilton District—The Newer Basalts of the Ballarat Tableland continue westwards without a break to the Hamilton District, where they cap a tableland about 600 feet in altitude, the tableland having a gentle tilt from Ballarat (1,600 feet) westwards to Hamilton (600 feet). At Hamilton the basalts show the same deep weathering and the same mature dissection as they do at Ballarat, but here they rest directly upon marine strata.
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The marine strata consist of Janjukian beds capped by a few feet only of Kalimnan marine beds, and the latter are capped in turn by the Newer Basalts. The nature of the contact between the two latter formations is not very clear in the field, but the evidence suggests that the Kalimnan sedimentation was inter- rupted by the pouring out of the basaltic lavas over the sea-bottom; it is, how- ever, possible that some erosion of the marine beds may have taken place before the extrusion of the basalts. However, one fact is quite clear, and that is that the basalts cannot be older than Lower Pliocene.
Besides the Newer Basalts just referred to, there occurs in this district a still younger. series of basaltic lava flows which have always in the past been grouped under the term Newer Basalts. At Byaduk, some few miles south of Hamilton, these younger basalts may be seen as flows partly filling the mature valleys which occur on the surface of the tableland. The Newer Basalts proper, in which the mature valleys occur, are deeply weathered, the ridges between the mature valleys are gently rounded, while rock outcrops are few and inconspicuous. The still younger basalt flows which lie in, and have flowed down, the mature valleys are but little weathered, there is very little soil, and consequently very little vegetation on their surfaces, and typical lava tunnels exist underneath them. When viewed from a short distance they give the impression of having flowed down the valley only a few years ago.
From the description just given it will be obvious that quite a long erosion interval exists between these two series of basalts, and the younger cannot be older than Pleistocene and may even be Recent in age.
Drik-Drik District —The basalt-capped tableland extends south-westwards from Hamilton to the Glenelg River and has here an elevation of about 500 feet, the basalts themselves being about 250 feet in thickness. The writer is indebted to Mr. R. A. Keble for the details of the geology of this district; he states that the present-day valley of the Glenelg River is younger than the basalt which caps the tableland and that this valley, since its first formation, has been partly submerged beneath the sea and later uplifted; during the submergence, marine strata of Werrikooian (Upper Pliocene) age were deposited in it and such strata are, therefore, younger than the basalts. The succession of events as given by Mr. Keble was as follows:
1. Extrusion of the basalts (Newer Basalts) which covered the ancient valley of the Glenelg River.
2. Initial erosion of the present Glenelg Valley at the fringe of the basalt sheet.
3. Submergence followed by the deposition of marine strata of Werrikooian age.
4. Uplift bringing the Glenelg Valley again above sea-level.
This evidence gives an upward limit to the age of the Newer Basalts; they are pre-Werrikooian.
From the evidence at Pitfield Plains, Moorabool River, Hamilton and Drik- Drik, it seems quite certain, therefore, that the Newer Basalts of Western Victoria and their associated fiuviatile beds containing fossil leaves and fossil fruits are of Pliocene age, and most probably of Lower Pliocene age.
Having considered the upward limit of age of the Cinnamomum flora, attention should now be given as to what evidence there may be as to its downward limit of age.
F. A. Singleton (1935), in referring to the occurrence of the genus Cinnamomum in the upper series of the marine beds at Beaumaris (Victoria),
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Xxiil
states that these beds have usually been referred to the Kalimnan (Lower Pliocene), but gives some reasons for thinking that they may be Upper Miocene; even if this suggestion should prove to be correct, it does not bring the genus Cinnamomum lower than Upper Miocene.
At Sentinel Rock (Victoria) leaf-bearing beds overlie marine strata of Barwonian (Lower to Middle Miocene) age. F. Chapman (1905) states that “this flora is a very distinct one, the leaves being chiefly of the Coprosma (Coprosmo- phyllum Hy. Deane) type; other genera present are the proteaceous Persoonia, the coniferous Phyllocladus; Casuarina and Acacia are also present’. This flora is certainly not the typical Cinnamomum flora, but in any case, resting as it does upon marine Barwonian strata, it cannot be older than Upper Miocene and may even be younger.
At Moorlands in South Australia (Mawson and Chapman, 1921) fossil plants have been found occurring below marine Miocene strata, but only two genera have been described, a Banksia and a Telopea; this again is not the typical Cinnamomum flora.
More recently some fossil leaves have been found by Sir Douglas Mawson in clay beds lying beneath marine strata of Janjukian age at Blanche Point, Aldinga, in South Australia. These have been described by F. Chapman (1935), and include the genera Ficonium, Pomaderris, cf. Banksia, Eleocarpus, Sterculia, similar, according to Chapman, to species occurring in the Cinnamomum flora, but as to whether these few fossil plants truly represent the Cinnamomum flora is a matter for question.
From the Redbank Plains in south-eastern Queensland a fossil flora has been found which includes the genera Sapindus, Ficus, Myrica, Banksia, Cinnamomum, Diemenia, Eucalyptus and Apocynophyllum, and there would appear to be no doubt that it is a similar flora to the Cinnamomum fiora of New South Wales and Victoria. These same beds have yielded fossil fish which have been described by E. S. Hills (1934); he has described four species, all new ones, as follows:
(a) Epiceratodus denticulatus, which Hills considers to be very close to
HH. forsteri, a species which ranges from Pleistocene to Recent;
(0) Phareodus queenslandicus—Hills states that the only other known occurrences of this genus are in the Eocene of Wyoming and the Lower Tertiary of Java; the Queensland example is, however, a new species;
(c) Notogoneus parvus.—The only other known fossils of this genus are stated to range from Eocene to Oligocene. Hills, however, was doubtful as to whether his Queensland specimens were really referable to Notogoneus, and states that ‘better material may reveal differences sufficient to separate from this genus”;
(ad) Percalates antiquus.—Hills’s conclusion was that there is an extremely close resemblance between this species and the living P. colonomum.
It is obvious that the evidence of age given by these fossil fish is somewhat conflicting; this was realized by Hills, and he referred them tentatively to the Oligocene Period; the question may well be raised as to whether a younger age is not suggested by these fossil fish in view of the fact that two of them are very closely related to Pleistocene and living species, while, of the other two, one is a new species, and of the other the true genus is in doubt.
From the above it will be seen that although some few fossil leaves have been found in undoubted pre-Miocene strata, there is at present no certain evidence, from association with marine strata, that the Cinnamomum flora as a
XXiV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
whole is older than Lower Pliocene, while so far as the evidence of the associated fossil fish in south-eastern Queensland is concerned, while it cannot be ignored, it is at least doubtful. It is quite certain, of course, that some of the members of this flora existed in pre-Pliocene times; perhaps they all did; but the only thing that we can be really sure about at present is that this flora was abundant and widespread in Pliocene times.
Reference should be made here to an association of marine strata with an auriferous lead at the Welcome Rush near Stawell (Victoria). This occurrence was first described by R. Brough Smyth in a letter to the Geological Magazine; he stated that marine fossils had been obtained from a bed of ferruginous material about thirty-eight feet below the surface of the ground and forty feet above the Silurian bedrock upon which the auriferous wash rests. The few marine fossils found here were described by F. McCoy, who referred them to the Lower Pliocene. These fossils, which are few in number and most of them poorly preserved, have since been re-described by F. Chapman (1905), who concluded that ‘“‘they repre- sented a horizon near the summit of the Janjukian Series, but older than the Kalimnan (Lower Pliocene) and younger than the Balcombian”; that is, about Middle Miocene in age.
The strata associated with the auriferous gravels have not yielded any fossil leaves or fossil fruits, and they do not appear to be associated with any of the Tertiary Basalts; consequently there is nothing to enable any correlation to be made with other Victorian fluviatile deposits, and they do not, therefore, afford any direct evidence as to the geological age of the latter.
The Volcanic Rocks of New South Wales.
The Cainozoic volcanic rocks of New South Wales were described in some detail by the writer (1923), and there is no need to add here to that description; they were classified as follows:
The Alkaline Series—Late Tertiary. The Plateau Basalts—Lower Pliocene. The Monadnock Basalts—Upper Cretaceous or Hocene.
(a) The Monadnock Basalts——These occur as cappings on some of the physio- graphical residuals (monadnocks) rising above the level of the adjacent tablelands; the areas covered are relatively small.
(0) The Plateau Basalts.—These are the basalts covering extensive areas of the surfaces of the present-day tablelands and which in places overlie the fluviatile deposits already described. The term plateau basalt was used in a purely geographical sense and was a very convenient one, but of late years this name has, unwisely, been given a petrological significance which does not necessarily apply to all basalts situated on tablelands. Reasons have already been given for referring these basalts to the Lower Pliocene.
(c) The Alkaline Series.—These consist mainly of alkaline rocks ranging from acid to basic in composition and include some basalts. The areas occupied are relatively small.
The Cainozoic Volcanic Rocks were later referred to in some detail by Dr. W. R. Browne (1933), who differed from the writer on a number of points, the most important difference being with regard to the age of the Alkaline Series; these he considers to be older than the Plateau Basalts; these differences will not be discussed here, but will form the subject later of a separate paper. Dr, Browne drew attention in his paper to one very interesting occurrence in the
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXV
Moruya District of New South Wales, where Dr. Ida Brown had noted the occurrence of basalts overlying beds of coarse grit containing fragments of pelecypods, which F. A. Singleton had tentatively referred to the Upper Cainozoic.
The Cainozoic Volcanic Rocks of Victoria.
These have in the past been classified as follows, and a summary of their
occurrence has been published by E. W. Skeats (1909): 1. The Alkaline Series—Middle Cainozoic. 2. The Newer Basalts—Pliocene to Pleistocene. 3. The Older Basalts—Oligocene or Miocene.
The Older Basalts——In south central Victoria, but particularly in the districts around and adjacent to Port Phillip, basalts occur which definitely underlie marine strata of Lower Miocene age. In summarizing these occurrences, F. A. Singleton states ‘that basalts have been found beneath Janjukian limestone at Airey’s Inlet; beneath Lepidocyclina limestone at Flinders and Keilor; beneath Balcombian marls at Balcombe Bay, and under beds of probably similar age at Curlewis and Royal Park’. He considers these basalts to be Oligocene in age, since they underlie the marine beds unconformably. It was to occurrences such as these that the term “older basalts” was originally applied; there can, of course, be no doubt as to their Lower Cainozoic age. Unfortunately, there has later been grouped with them a series of basalts in Hastern Victoria which are not associated with marine strata; these include the occurrences already described as occurring at Dargo High Plains, Aberfeldy, Tangil, Narracan, Berwick, etc. The correlation of these occurrences with the Older Basalts was apparently based upon McCoy’s determination of the Lower Miocene age of the fossil plants found under the basalts at Dargo High Plains, but, as has already been pointed out in an earlier part of this address, it is much more probable that these plants are of Lower Pliocene age, and, if this is correct, the basalts cannot be older than Lower Pliocene.
One interesting example of basalts of two distinct ages occurs at Aberfeldy. The geology of this district has been described by Mr. Baragwanath (1925); he describes the existence of two peneplains, an older one now surviving only in the form of residuals, of which Mt. Useful (4,760 feet) is one, and a younger one now forming the surface of the existing tableland whose altitude near Mt. Useful is about 3,500 feet. A basalt capping overlying what Mr. Baragwanath calls peneplain gravels and which is therefore part of a one-time lava flow, occurs on top of Mt. Useful, that is, on the older peneplain; basalts also occur on the surface of the present tableland (with underlying river gravels), that is, on the surface of the younger peneplain—this basalt was also a lava flow. It is obvious that the basalt on top of Mt. Useful must be much older geologically than that on the tableland below; the former would correspond with the Monadnock basalts of New South Wales, while the latter would correspond with the Plateau basalts of New South Wales. The possible age of the Mt. Useful basalt will be discussed later.
Under the term “older basalt’? has also been included a flow which occurs interstratified with Miocene marine strata at Maude in the Moorabool Valley (Hall and Pritchard, 1895); this flow cannot be older than Lower Miocene.
It appears, therefore, that basalts of three distinct ages, Oligocene, Lower Miocene and Lower Pliocene, have been grouped together under the term “Older Basalts’’.
Cc
xXxvi PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
The Newer Basalts.——This term has been used to include the whole of the basalts occurring in Western Victoria, and the age given by most writers has been Pliocene to Pleistocene. In this region there are basalts of at least two distinct geological ages, the two being separated by a wide erosion interval. The older series is that which occurs in the more northern part of the area, and forms a capping to the low tableland which extends from Bacchus Marsh to the Glenelg River. These basalts have already been referred to in the description of the fiuviatile deposits which in places underlie, or are interstratified with, them and reasons advanced for considering them to be of Lower Pliocene age.
It has been pointed out by E. W. Skeats (1909) that wide mature valleys have been incised in the surface of these basalts, and by the writer that at Byaduk younger basalts have flowed down and partly filled these mature valleys, and that these younger basalts cannot be older than late Pleistocene and may even be as young as Recent in age. F. A. Singleton (1935) has referred to the existence at Portland, in the far west of Victoria, of basalts overlying oyster beds of Werrikooian (latest Pliocene) age; these basalts are probably also of Pleistocene age. In the southern part of Western Victoria, particularly in the Colac and Camperdown districts, there is an extensive development of basaltic lava flows, beds of tuff and tuff cones. F. A. Singleton (1935) states that because of their state of preservation these cannot be older than Upper Pleistocene; the writer has visited this area and would go so far as to say that the vuleanicity may even have continued into Recent times.
The newer basalts of Western Victoria, therefore, include (a) basalts of Lower Pliocene age, and (U) basalts of Pleistocene age, perhaps extending into the Recent Period.
The Alkaline Series—MThese have only a very limited distribution and were originally referred by Prof. E. W. Skeats (1909) to the Middle Cainozoic, but more recently F. A. Singleton (1935) has referred them to the Late Pliocene or Pleistocene.
It will be seen, therefore, that the basalts of Victoria apparently belong to at least four distinct geological periods, (a) Oligocene, (b) Lower Miocene, (c) Lower Pliocene, (d) Pleistocene to Recent. Under these circumstances the use of the terms Older and Newer Basalts is misleading, and has led to much confusion, and it would be better if both terms were dropped.
The Huristing Topography of New South Wales and its Development.
No part of the State of New South Wales, except one small area in the south- western corner, has been beneath the sea since the close of the Mesozoic Era, while the greater part of it has not been beneath the sea since the close of the Palaeozoic Era; the present topography, therefore, has been in course of development since at least as far back as the Cretaceous Period.
It is not necessary to give here a detailed account of the existing topography; that has already been fully done by HE. C. Andrews (1910), and nothing has been published since which necessitates any serious modification of the views put forward by him. It will be necessary, however, to refer to the more important features for the purpose of showing their relation to such Cainozoic geological formations as do occur; it will also be necessary to correlate the physiographical features of New South Wales with those of Victoria.
The greater part of New South Wales to-day consists of tablelands with altitudes ranging from as low as a few hundred to as high as 6,000 feet or more; the exceptions to this generalization are the extensive alluvial plains which exist
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXVii
in the north-western and south-western parts of the State; similar tablelands extend northwards into Queensland and southwards into Victoria. The original surfaces of these tablelands were all parts of a great peneplain (the Great Hast Australian Peneplain), developed probably during Lower Tertiary time and elevated to form the existing tablelands at the close of the Cainozoic Era (the Kosciusko Uplift). Since their uplift the tablelands have suffered considerable dissection, particularly along their eastern and western margins, but there still remain to-day extensive areas, particularly adjacent to the Main Divide, which are still undis- sected; these undissected tableland remnants give us a picture of the late Cainozoic land surface, as it existed before the uplift took place, and provide evidence which helps us to interpret the geological history of that Era.
An ideal section across such a tableland remnant is given in Figure 6; it shows the general level of the peneplain surface, above which rise residuals of the older tableland out of which the peneplain was cut. In any one district the more important of these residuals all rise to approximately the same altitude above the peneplain surface, and this gives some measure (minimum, of course) of the altitude of the older tableland. The altitude of these residuals varies from district to district, ranging from 450 feet to 1,500 feet. It is highly probable, of course, that the surface of this older tableland was also a peneplain, and this older peneplain, now almost completely destroyed, was probably developed during the Cretaceous Period, and may be tentatively referred to as the Cretaceous Peneplain, while its successor, which forms the surface of the present tablelands, may for convenience be referred to as the Lower Tertiary Peneplain.
In some districts, notably the Blue Mountain Tableland, the residuals above referred to are capped with basalt, and in some cases river gravels underlie these basalts.
When the surfaces of the present-day tablelands are studied in detail it is found that the original peneplain surfaces have undergone certain modifications as shown in Figure 2; it is found that, after its development, stream channels were incised in its surfaces to depths ranging from 300 to 400 feet; for this to have been possible an uplift of 300 to 400 feet must have taken place. Owing to some change in conditions active erosion in these stream channels gave place to aggrada- tion and they became partly filled with deposits of sand, clay and lignite. This was followed in many districts by the outpouring of extensive flows of basalt which covered up the fluviatile deposits, partly filled the already formed valleys in some cases, and in others completely filled them and overflowed on to the peneplain surface. After the volcanic outbursts ceased, erosion continued and resulted in the production of a network of broad mature valleys over the peneplain surface, cut alike out of the basalts and the older rocks; these valleys range up to 400 feet in depth and up to several miles in width and are separated from one another by gently rounded ridges, but in places moderate areas of the original peneplain surface still survive. Such an extensive development of wide mature valleys in an area of low relief (300 to 400 feet) must. have required an extensive period of time, amounting almost to a cycle of erosion. This incomplete cycle of erosion was terminated by the uplift which produced the present-day tablelands, and which elevated the system of mature valleys to their present high altitude; because of their elevated position EH. C. Andrews has referred to them as the “Upland Valleys’. At the present time the floors of these old Cainozoic valleys are aggraded and no active erosion is taking place, but in many places the gorges of the present cycle of erosion can be seen heading back along them, and in such
XXVili PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
places, of course, the valleys are being deepened and active erosion is taking place.
For the production of a topography such as has just been described the following succession of events would be necessary:
1. A cycle of erosion which produced the older peneplain (the ? Cretaceous Peneplain) ;
2. An uplift of from 450 to 1,500 feet which converted this peneplain into a series of tablelands;
3. A second cycle of erosion which produced the Lower Tertiary Peneplain (Great Hast Australian Peneplain) ;
4. An uplift of from 300 to 400 feet producing low tablelands;
5. An incomplete cycle of erosion which produced the system of mature valleys (the Upland Valleys) and which was accompanied by extensive voleanie activity;
6. The Kosciusko Uplift which produced the existing tablelands of Hastern Australia.
The Geomorphology of Victoria.
It is not proposed to attempt here a detailed account of the geomorphology of Victoria, but merely to outline sufficient of its more important features to make a comparison with that of New South Wales possible.
The most recent summary of the physiography of Victoria is that given by E. S. Hills (1935); in this he divides the State into a number of physiographic divisions with a general east-west trend; these divisions, starting from the north, are as follows:
(a) The Murray Basin Plains province, a low-lying alluviated region lying to the north of the main belt of tablelands; this is similar to and continuous with the Riverina Plains of New South Wales;
(b) The Western and Eastern Highland Provinces which together form an almost continuous belt of highlands lying along the main divide of the State;
(c) A continuous belt of lowlands lying along the southern margins of the highland provinces; this is the region called by Professor Gregory the Great Valley of Victoria; much of it was covered by the sea during a considerable part of Tertiary time;
(d) Two relatively small highland regions lying to the south of (c); the eastern one is called by Hills the South Gippsland Highlands, while the western one is referred to as the Otway Ranges.
The Eastern Highland Province ranges up to 6,000 feet in altitude, and at its eastern end joins up and is continuous with the Southern Tableland of New South Wales. Hills states that the dominant physiographic controls in these highlands are differential erosion, late Tertiary warp movements and Older Basalts; these latter he considers to be Oligocene to Miocene in age. He states that these flows filled pre-existing depressions and that, upon the elevation of the tableland and its subsequent dissection, they gave rise to lava residuals which occupy some of the highest land.
A description of the details of the physiography of a portion of this region called the Aberfeldy District by H. Baragwanath (1925) is very informative; he shows the presence there of two distinct peneplains, a younger one which forms the surface of the present-day tableland at an altitude of 3,000 to 3,500 feet and an older one now surviving in the form of residuals ranging from 1,000 to 1,500
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. OX
feet above the general level of the tableland. These two erosion levels obviously correspond to the two peneplains which exist across the border in New South Wales. At Aberfeldy basalts occur on both peneplains; Baragwanath described a small area of basalt overlying gravels on the top of Mt. Useful (4,760 ft.), a part of the older peneplain and also the occurrence of basalts on the lower peneplain level, obviously lying in a valley eroded in that level; these two basalt occurrences are obviously of different ages and correspond to the Monadnock basalts and Plateau basalts respectively of New South Wales.
The maps and sections published by R. A. Murray of the Bogong and Dargo High Plains show the presence there, but at a higher altitude, of a peneplain corresponding to that of the younger one at Aberfeldy, also with its basalt-covered stream-channels.
The South Gippsland Highland has already been referred to in describing the fluviatile deposits at Hast Tangil and Narracan, and differs from the highland region to the north only in its lower elevation. Hills states that these highlands owe their elevation mainly to Pliocene earth movements, and that faulting was dominant during their uplift. The Western Highland Province has a much lower general altitude than the Hastern Province, ranging from a few hundred up to about 1,600 feet in altitude. Hills states that this province comprises ranges and valleys resulting from the differential erosion of a region of complex geology now partly buried beneath (?) Pliocene, Pleistocene and Recent basalts, and states further that prominent ranges rise above the general level of these highlands, such as Mt. Macedon, Mt. Brangor, Mt. Farrangower and the Grampian Mountains; these latter are considered by him to be residuals.
H. Baragwanath’s description of the geology of the Ballarat District (1928) shows that the surface of the tableland there is a similar well-developed peneplain to that. which occurs in Hastern Victoria, with similar valleys incised into its surface containing fluviatile deposits with similar fossil leaves and fruits and the whole partly covered by flows of basalt. The one important difference between the eastern and western province is that the latter does not show such striking dissection, but this is essentially a matter of altitude. The Western Tableland Province is highest along its eastern margin (about 1,600 feet in altitude), and here, for example at Bacchus Marsh, the dissection is relatively just as highly developed as in the Eastern Tablelands. In all other directions, but particularly westwards, this Western Highland Province is gently tilted and along its western margin the altitude has fallen to 500 feet or less; the streams which drain it have consequently relatively low grades and there has been no opportunity for the cutting out of deep gorges. The average rainfall of this western region also is much lower than that of the high tablelands in the Hastern Highland Province with a consequent smaller volume of water in the stream-channels.
The profound dissection of the Eastern Highland Province, together with the belief that the basalts capping the tablelands of that region were much older than those of the western province, seems to have led to the belief that the two regions have had a different physiographic history, but when one comes to analyse the essential features of the two regions there appears to be no real difference apart from that of altitude. In both regions the evidence shows (1) the presence of a well-developed peneplain, now forming the surface of the tablelands, (2) an elevation of this peneplain a few hundreds of feet followed by the cutting of shallow valleys into its surface, (3) the partial filling of these valleys by fluviatile deposits containing fossil leaves and fossil fruits, (4) outpouring of basalts covering the
xxXxX PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
fluviatile deposits, filling the valleys and in places overflowing on to the surrounding peneplain surface, (5) subsequent to the vulcanicity the development of wide shallow mature valleys alike in the basalts and older rocks, and (6) uplift to form the present tablelands.
The above is exactly the succession of events recorded along the whole of the tableland region of New South Wales.
The one important feature in which the Cainozoic history of Victoria differs from that of New South Wales was in the development of subsidence areas which allowed of marine sedimentation in such areas throughout a considerable part of Tertiary time.
Summary.
From the evidence presented, one gathers that the more important events of the geological history of the Cainozoic Era in New South Wales, including also something of the Cretaceous Period, were as listed below. This succession of events appears to hold good also for the highlands of the State of Victoria. The suggested geological age for some of the items is, as will be pointed out later, only tentative.
1. (?) Cretaceous Period. <A cycle of erosion which produced the older peneplain.
2. (?) Late Cretaceous or Early Eocene Period. The Monadnock Basalts. Epi-Cretaceous. An epeirogenic uplift which uplifted the older peneplain and produced a series of tablelands ranging from 450 to 1,500 feet in altitude.
4. Hocene to Miocene. A cycle of erosion which produced the younger peneplain (Great Hast Australian Peneplain).
5. Epi-Miocene. An epeirogenic uplift which produced a series of low tablelands averaging about 400 feet in altitude.
6. Lower Pliocene. The erosion of valleys followed by the deposition in them of fluviatile deposits containing fossil leaves and fossil fruit.
7. Lower Pliocene. Widespread volcanic activity and outpouring of basalt flows over very wide areas.
8. Upper Pliocene. Continuation of valley formation with the ultimate development of a very widespread series of wide mature valleys—the Upland Valleys.
9. Late Pliocene. Pronounced epeirogenic uplift (the Kosciusko Uplift) with the production of the existing tablelands ranging up to 6,000 feet in altitude.
10. Pleistocene Period. A cycle of erosion which is still in operation and which has brought about the dissection of the existing tablelands.
The older peneplain has been, by most previous writers, referred to the Cretaceous Period; extensive marine sedimentation was going on during that period both to the west and to the east of the region now under discussion and some large areas of land must have been undergoing denudation to produce the sediments. The retreat of the sea from the Great Artesian Basin area and the folding of the marine Cretaceous sediments of Hastern Queensland show that pronounced earth movements occurred at the end of the Cretaceous Period; it seems quite reasonable to suppose, therefore, that a peneplain had been developed in Eastern Australia during the Cretaceous Period, and that it was elevated at the close of that period in what are now the tableland regions of Hastern Australia.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXxi
The Monadnock Basalts, lying as they do on the surface of the (?) Cretaceous peneplain, must be younger than that surface, and cannot, therefore, be older than the late Cretaceous, but if poured out after the uplift they might be early Eocene in age. They may possibly have some time relation to the basalts which underlie the marine Janjukian beds of Victoria, but there is no evidence in support of that available at present.
The cycle of erosion which produced the younger peneplain (the Great Hast Australian Peneplain) ended at or near the close of the Miocene Period, but the evidence as to just when it began is not so clear; quite possibly the epi-Cretaceous uplift initiated this cycle and it continued throughout Hocene and Miocene time, the development of the peneplain taking place more or less simultaneously with the sedimentation which was taking place in that area which was undergoing subsidence along the southern margin of Australia and in which the Oligocene and Miocene formations of Victoria and South Australia were deposited.
Sufficient evidence has already been given to show that events 6, 7 and 8 took place during the Pliocene Period and that a general uplift of the land followed at or about the close of this period. This great uplift, called by E. C. Andrews the Kosciusko Uplift, was an epeirogenic one, varying from a few hundreds up to 6,000 feet in amount and produced the existing tablelands; the uplift, being a differential one, was accompanied in many places by warping and block-faulting. During this uplift certain areas lagged behind and remained practically stationary; examples of such “still-stand” areas are the Clarence River Basin and Lower Hawkesbury Basin of New South Wales, and that great belt of lowlands, sometimes referred to as the Great Valley of Victoria, which extends from east to west along the southern margin of the main belt of tablelands of that State. It is interesting to note that the extensive development of Pleistocene and perhaps Recent basaltic lavas and tuffs of Victoria are associated with the western part of this “still-stand” area.
Following the elevation of the tablelands a new cycle of erosion was initiated which is still in progress and which has brought about the dissection of the tablelands as we see them to-day.
List of References. ANDREWS, E. C., 1901.—Report on the Kiandra Lead. Dept. Mines N.S.W., Mineral ) Resources, No. 10, 1901. ———,, 1910.—The Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia in late and post Tertiary Time. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xliv, 1910, p. 420. BARAGWANATH, W., 1923.—The Ballarat Goldfield. Dept. Mines Victoria, Memoir, No. 14, 0B ,1925.—The Aberfeldy District. Dept. Mines Victoria, Memoir, No. 15, 1925. Brown, H. Y. L., 1882.—Progress Report on the Geology of the Forest Reefs Goldfield. Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines, N.S.W. BROWNE, W. R., 1933.—An Account of the Post-Palaeozoic Igneous Activity in New South Wales. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., lxvii, 1933. CaRNE, J. E., 1911.—The Tin Mining Industry. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Mineral Resources, No. 14, 1911. CHAPMAN, F., 1905.—The Victorian Naturalist, xxi, 1905, p. 178. , 1926.—On some Tertiary Plant Remains of Narracan. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., XXXwviil, 1926, p. 183. ,1935.—Plant Remains of Lower Oligocene age from Blanche Point, Aldinga, S.A. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., lix, 1935, p. 237. —, and CrREsPIN, I., 1932.—The Tertiary Geology of East Gippsland, Victoria. Dept. Home Affairs, Canberra, Palaeont. Bull., No. 1, 1932. , and SINGLETON, F.. A., 1923.—The Tertiary Deposits of Australia. Proc. Pac. Sci. Cong. Australia, 1923, i, p. 985.
XXX1i PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
Davip, T. W. E., 1887.—The Geology of the Vegetable Creek Tin-Mining Field. Mem. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Geol. No. 1, 1887.
————, 1914. Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia. Federal Handbook, Brit. Asscn. Meeting. Govt. Printer, Melbourne, 1914.
, 1932.—Explanatory Notes to accompany New Geological Map of Australia. Aust. Med. Pub. Co., Sydney, 19232, p. 81.
DEANE, H., 1896.—Pres. Add. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 2nd Series, x, 1895 (1896), p. 653.
, 1900.—Observations on the Tertiary Flora of Australia. Proc. LInn. Soc.
N.S.W., xxv, 1900, p. 463. , 1902.—Notes on the Fossil Flora of Pitfield and Mornington. Rec. Geol. Surv. We@los 15 Tt We UOOA, is 2% , 1907.—Notes on the Fossil Leaves of the Warrumbungle Mountains. Rec. Geol. Suro. NISSW., vill, pt. 3; 19107; p. 189: ——_— —, 1925.—Fossil Leaves from the Open Cut, State Brown Coal Mine, Morwell. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., iv, pt. 4, 1925. ETTINGSHAUSEN, C., Baron von, 1888.—Contributions to the Tertiary Flora of Australia. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Mem. Geol. Surv., No. 2, 1888. FENNER, C., 1918.—The Physiography of the Werribee River Area. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., socal, IAS, IG. Hau, T. S., and PRITCHARD, G. B., 1895.—The Older Tertiaries of Maude. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vii, 1895, p. 180.
, 1897.—Geology of the Lower Moorabool Valley. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., x, 1897. HERMAN, H., 1922.—The Brown Coals of Victoria. Geol. Surv. Vict., Bull. 45, 1922. Hiuzs, BH. S., 1934.—The Tertiary Freshwater Fish of South Queensland. Mem. Queens-
land Mus., x, pt. 4, 1934. , 1935.—Physiography of Victoria. Handbook of Victoria, A.N.Z.A.A.S., Melbourne Meeting, 1935. HUNTER, STANLEY, 1909.—The Deep Leads of Victoria. Geol. Surv. Vict., Mem. No. 7, UGKOE), To, ales : Jaquet, J. B., 1901.—The Iron Ore Deposits of New South Wales. Mem. Dept. Mines, INESAWin Geol, INOS 2 90H, ip. Sloe JOHNSTON, R. M., 1873.—Regarding the Composition and Extent of certain Tertiary Beds in and around Launceston. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1873, p. 39. —, 1879.—Note on the Discovery of Spondylostrobus Smythii and other fossil fruits in the Deep Lead at Brandy Creek Goldfield. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1879, p. 25. Mawson, D., and CHAPMAN, F., 1921.—The Tertiary Brown Coal Beds of Moorlands, South Australia. Trans. Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., xlv, 1921, p. 133. McCoy, F., 1876.—Prodromus of the Palaeontology of Victoria. Decade iv, 1876. , 1878.—Report of Progress. Geol. Surv. Vict., 1878, p. 102. MUELLER, F. von, 1874.—Observations of New Vegetable Fossils of the Auriferous Drifts. Geol. Surv. Vict., 1874. , 1876.—Fossil Plants of the Upper Tertiary Leads of New South Wales. Dept. Wines, N.S.W., Ann. Rept., 1876, p. 124. Murray, R. A., 1880.—Geological Survey of S.W. Gippsland-Russell Creek Goldfield. Prog. Rept. Geol. Surv. Vict., 1880, p. 39.
, 1887.—Geology and Physiography of Victoria. Melbourne, 1887.
PITTMAN, E. F., 1908.—Epitome of the Geology of New South Wales. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Min. and Geol. Mus. Circ. No. 9, 1908.
SINGLETON, F. A., 1935.—Physiography and Geology of Victoria. Handbook, A.N.Z.A.A.S., Melbourne Meeting, 1935.
SKEATS, E. W., 1909.—The Voleaniec Rocks of Victoria. Rept. A.A.A.S., Brisbane, 1909, pep IbT/Ay
SmyTH, R. B., 1872.—Geological Magazine, ix, 1872, p. 335.
, 1874.—Prog. Rept. Geol. Surv. Vict., i, 1874, p. 38.
,1875.—Prog. Rept. Geol. Surv. Vict., ii, 1875, p. 23.
SUSSMILCH, C. A., 1911.—Outline of the Geology of New South Wales. Govt. Printer, Sydney, 1911. ~, 1923.—The History of Vuleanism in New South Wales. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., lvii, 1923, p. 36. ,1925.—An Outline of the Marine Topographic Features of New South Wales. Proc. Pac. Sci. Cong. Australia, 1923 (1925), i, p. 721. WaLcott, R. H., 1920.—Evidence of Age of some Australian Gold Drifts. Rec. Geol. Surv. NS.W., 1x, pt. 2, 1920, p; 66:
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937. PLATE A.
Views at Emmaville (1) and Dalton (2) showing typical ‘‘upland valleys’.
BRERA Se 7
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXXili
WILKINSON, C. S., 1878.—Report Geol. Surveyor in Charge, Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Appendix C, 1878, p. 164. , 1882.—Notes on the Geology of New South Wales. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Mineral Products, 1882, p. 5d.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE A. 1.—View at Emmaville, showing typical “Upland Valley”’.
2.—View at Dalton, showing typical “Upland Valley’ with leaf-bearing beds in foreground.
Dr. G. A. Waterhouse, Honorary Treasurer, presented the balance-sheets for the year ended 28th February, 1937, duly signed by the Auditor, Mr. F. H. Rayment, F.C.A. (Aust.); and he moved that they be received and adopted, which was carried unanimously.
No nominations of other candidates having been received, the Chairman declared the following elections for the ensuing session to be duly made:
President: E. C. Andrews, B.A.
Members of Council: R. H. Anderson, B.Sec.Agr., Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Se., H. S. Halcro Wardlaw, D.Sc., G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S., W. L. Waterhouse, M.C., D.Sc.Agr., D.I.C. (Lond.).
Auditor: F. H. Rayment, F.C.A. (Aust.).
A cordial vote of thanks to the retiring President was carried by acclamation.
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THE STRUCTURE OF GALLS FORMED BY CYTTARIA SEPTENTRIONALIS ON FAGUS MOORE.
By JANET M. WILson, B.A. (Plates i-ii; twelve Text-figures. ) [Read 31st March, 1937.]
The parasitic fungus Cyttaria has been found attacking different species of Fagus in South America, Australia and New Zealand. Two species have been recorded in Australia, Cyttaria Gunnii Berk., which grows on Fagus Cunninghami Hook. in Victoria and Tasmania, and Cyttaria septentrionalis Herb. on Fagus Moorei F.v.M. in New South Wales and southern Queensland. C. septentrionalis was first described by Herbert (1932) from the MacPherson Ranges, on the southern Queensland border, and was later recorded by the writer (1935) from Barrington Tops, Mt. Royal Ranges, north-west of Newcastle, N.S.W.
Cyttaria has been placed in the tamily Cyttariaceae, an inoperculate family of the Pezizales.
Materials.
The material used in this investigation was collected on 28th August and 6th October, 1935, near the summit of Barrington Tops, New South Wales. Micro- tome sections of the gall were stained by the iron-alum haematoxylin method, and with gentian violet and orange G. These showed the details of the mycelium. Hand sections were also made and stained with lacto-phenol-cotton blue. By this method the mycelium and cytoplasm stained a bright blue and were differentiated from the host cells. The distribution of the fungus in the tissues could thus be traced.
Gall Formation.
Infection by the fungus causes certain modifications of the host which result in the formation of hard woody galls. Galls develop on all infected stems and branches which are undergoing secondary thickening. Secondary tissues only are infected.
Macroscopic Hxamination of Galls.
The galls vary from about haif an inch to a few feet in length, and from half an inch to about eighteen inches in diameter. They may be long and narrow (Plate i, figs. 1, 2) or short and round (Plate i, fig. 3). Long narrow galls are the commoner, and their shape is due to the fact that infecting mycelium spreads along the cambium chiefly in one direction, parallel to the long axis of the stem. It extends further each year, so that the galls are widest in the centre, tapering off towards each end. The long narrow galls are often somewhat twisted round the stem, following the natural twist of the grain of the wood. In the round short galls the parasitic mycelium has not travelled longitudinally to any extent from the centre of infection.
E
2 GALLS FORMED BY CYTTARIA SEPTENTRIONALIS,
A transverse section across a gall shows that all the tissues of the stem are not invaded (Text-fig. 1). One or more irregularly wedge-shaped areas of infected tissue can be seen in the stem (A in Text-fig. ld) extending from the cortex nearly to the pith. Each infected section of the stem is generally the result of one primary infection, but compound galls, which owe their origin to two or more primary infections close together, are not uncommon. This condition is shown by the gall illustrated in Plate i, figs. 4a and 4b. This gall has four components which can be seen externally at A, B, C and D as erumpent areas separated by normal bark. The internal extent of the infected tissues is shown in Text-figure 1, a—h, repre- senting transverse sections of the gall taken at intervals of one inch. Infected tissues are shaded, the unshaded parts representing normal xylem. ‘The centre of the stem is marked in each case by a small circle. It can be seen that each infected area may be split up by narrow bands of normal xylem (A in Text-fig. 1a), but all are the result of a single infection.
Usually the infected area or areas are on one side of the stem only, giving it a very asymmetrical appearance. This is because infection causes an increase in the size of the tissues near, but not in, these infected areas, making the wood some distance from it on the infected side of the stem much thicker than on the uninfected side (Text-figs. 1 and 2). The twisted appearance of some galls is due to the occurrence of several infections fairly close together.
Age of Galls.
The mycelium is perennial and grows each year during the most active growth period of the host tree. The annual rings are fairly well marked in the uninfected wood of the gall (Plate i, fig. 5). Large vessels are formed each spring, but at the end of the active period of growth thicker-walled tracheids and fibres are formed. The age of any twig or branch can therefore be calculated. By making transverse sections of a gall, a point can be found where the infected tissue most closely approaches the pith. This has been taken to be the point at which infection first took place. It has always been found that infected xylem is present in the second annual ring, indicating that the fungus first becomes active at the commencement of the second growing season. By tracing the inward extent of the fungus in sections progressively nearer the ends of the gall, a region can be found where the infected tissue extends only to the beginning of the third annual ring (X in Text-fig. 2). The distance between this and the area of initial infection gives the rate of growth of the fungus longitudinally along the cambium in one year. Similarly the growth rate in subsequent years can be found. It was found that the growth rate of the fungus in the stem varies considerably from a few millimetres to over 1 centimetre per year.
Tissues Infected.
The tissues susceptible to infection are the cortex, phloem, cambium and secondary xylem. Of these the xylem is the chief tissue infected and forms the bulk of the gall.
(A). The Secondary Xylem.—Three types of cells occur in the secondary xylem of the gall: (1) Normal xylem elements; (2) Cells which contain the fungal hyphae; and (3) Cells which do not contain hyphae, but are modified in such a way that they do not develop normally.
(1). Normal xylem consists of vessels, tracheids, fibres and a little parenchyma, interrupted at intervals by xylem rays one or two cells wide and about twelve cells deep (Plate i, figs. 5, 6, 7). Fairly well defined annual rings
BY JANET M. WILSON. A - A Ho ea i NN a fi c WY
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Text-figs. 1-5.
1.—Series of transverse sections one inch apart from the compound gall shown in Plate i, figs. 4a and 4b, to show the areas of the stem occupied by the various components of the gall. Infected areas are shaded and the centre of the stem is marked by a small circle. The various components are shown at A, B, C and D. x 0°5.
2.—Transverse section of a gall near the centre of infection. A, normal xylem; B, cambium; C, infected tissue; P, primary xylem; X, point at which infection extends to third annual ring. x 12.
3-4.—Sections of infected cells showing mycelium. x 720.
5.—Transverse section of portion of a gall showing tracheidal cells. x 720.
4 GALLS FORMED BY CYTTARIA SEPTENTRIONALIS,
are shown (A in Plate i, fig. 5), since there is a definite period of rapid growth each spring following a period of inactivity of the cambium during the winter. These cells in themselves are quite normal, but between infected areas, and for a short distance on either side of infected areas, they are produced in greater numbers than in other parts of the stem (Text-fig. 2), thus giving the increased diameter referred to above. ;
(2). The tissues containing fungal mycelium resemble ordinary parenchyma. The cells are isodiametric, with fairly thick, but not lignified, walls and they show no prominent pitting (Text-figs. 3, 4; Pl. i, fig. 5; Pl. ii, figs. 8, 16). These cells originate as xylem elements. They become infected with mycelium as they are cut off from the cambium and their normal process of development is modified by the presence of the fungus. Instead of acquiring lignified walls and losing their contents and so becoming vessels, fibres or tracheids, or developing into parenchyma or ray cells, they elongate slightly, but otherwise remain little altered.
(3). The mycelium is not itself found in any other type of cell, but its presence causes modifications in the adjoining xylem (B in Text-fig. 2). These modifications become more marked as the gall increases in age. Young xylem elements in the vicinity of infected cells develop into tracheid-like cells. In an old gall these cells often occupy a larger area than do the infected cells, and it is to them that the gall owes much of its increase in size over that of the stem (Text-fig. 2). In the mature state these cells vary much in size and shape (Text-figs. 5 and 12). The modified cells are usually several times longer than broad (Plate ii, fig. 8). Plate ii, fig. 8 shows infected cells (A) bordered by modified xylem (B) and finally unmodified xylem (C). Plate ii, fig. 12, shows tracheidal cells at the upper edge of an infected area bordered on both sides by normal xylem. These tracheidal cells tend to dove-tail into one another. This is shown especially well in tangential section (PI. ii, fig. 9) and in transverse section (Text-fig. 5). Their walls are lignified and show prominent scalariform pits with very narrow borders (PI. ii, fig. 10 and Text-fig. 5). The direction of growth of the tracheidal cells varies considerably as is shown in transverse section (Pl. ii, figs. 10, 11, 8, 12) and longitudinal section (Pl. ii, fig. 9). In these sections cells are seen both longitudinally and transversely arranged. The radial arrangement of the xylem is therefore entirely lost in the region where they occur, and it becomes more irregular the older the gall (PI. ii, fig. 13).
Starch grains are present in great abundance in some of the young tracheidal cells (BE ai; figs) 14):
Areas of uninfected xylem are often seen arising in an area of infected xylem (Text-figs. 1b, 1d, A in Plate i, fig. 5). These are mostly wedge-shaped with the thin edge inward. Each must have originated from a cell of the cambium in the infected region which by chance was uninfected and therefore able to give rise to uninfected cells.
(B). The Cortex and Phloem.—tIn the primary cortex and phloem, infection produces a result resembling in some respects that produced in the xylem. The cells which contain the mycelium are similar in all respects to the infected cells in the xylem. The reaction of the phloem and cortex to fungal invasion differs from that of the xylem principally in that uninfected cells are in no way modified. Infection of the phloem causes an increase in the number of normal cells in the neighbourhood of the infected cells, thus increasing the size of the phloem tissue (Plate i, fig. 7).
BY JANET M. WILSON. 5
The secondary cortex is lacking or only a few cells in width, and appears never to be infected (Plate ii, fig. 15).
(C). The Cambium—The infected cells in the cambium are similar to infected cells in other tissues (B, Plate i, fig. 5). Though the cambium seems to be the centre from which other tissues are infected, the mycelium does not spread in a lateral direction along it further than it does in the xylem or the phloem, nor does it cause any modification of neighbouring cambial cells. Modified tracheidal cells are derived from uninfected cambium which at the same time produces uninfected phloem on the other side. In this case the phloem cells are usually produced at a more rapid rate than in uninfected stems.
Text-figs. 6-12. 6.—Section of an infected cell showing intercellular mycelium. x 960. 7-12.—Sections of infected cells showing effects of haustoria (H) on host nuclei (N). x 960.
The Mycelium within the Gall.
The vegetative mycelium of Cyttaria septentrionalis is fairly evenly distributed throughout the tissues it invades, except just below fruiting bodies, where the host cells are more or less completely filled with mycelium. Plate i, fig. 5, shows that no massing of fungal mycelium occurs in the wood.
The mycelium is septate and moderately thin-walled (Text-fig. 3), but the cells vary considerably in length. They usually appear to be uninucleate. This condition does not always obtain in the haustoria, which frequently show the presence of 2 or 3 nuclei (Text-figs. 8, 11, 12). The protoplasm is homogeneous and not very dense (Text-fig. 3).
The mycelium seems to be able to make its way either between the cells or across them, i.e., it is both intra- and inter-cellular (Text-figs. 4, 6). At the point where it enters the cell through the wall it may show a slight constriction (Text-fig. 7), but this is not invariable (see also Text-fig. 4). The intercellular mycelium sends into the cells haustoria which are irregular in shape and often prominently lobed (Text-figs. 9 and 10).
The Effects of the Mycelium on Host Cells and Tissues.
The hypha or haustorium, having entered the cell, usually approaches the nucleus (Text-fig. 4) and finally comes into contact with it (Text-fig. 7), or coils
6 GALLS FORMED BY CYTTARIA SEPTENTRIONALIS,
partially round it (Text-fig. 8). This causes, in most cases, considerable enlarge- ment of the host nucleus. Sometimes a definite change in the shape of the nucleus is apparent; it may become elongated, lobed or kidney-shaped (Text-figs. 9, 11, 12). The fungus does not appear to destroy the nucleus of the infected xylem or phloem cells, and, as far as has been observed, the host cells of these tissues are not eventually killed. Just below a fruiting body, however, the cortical cells become so filled with mycelium that the nucleus and all the contents are completely absorbed and replaced by the fungal mycelium.
The result of infection on the tissues as a whole is a general enlargement of part of the stem, i.e., the formation of a hyperplastic gall, which is due to increase in the number of the cells and not to increase in size of the existing cells (i.e., hypertrophy).
The greatest increase takes place in the xylem and phloem, the primary cortex seldom being heavily infected. Text-figure 2 shows the normal proportion of infection in each tissue.
The increased rate of cell production in the phloem causes the bark covering the gall outside an infected area to become thicker than outside normal wood (Plate ii, figs. 15, 16), even when it contains no mycelium. It is, however, frequently ruptured by the rapid expansion of the tissues beneath it, and, in © addition, shows various scars left by the fruiting bodies of previous years. The phellogen is a very narrow band and is lacking over the ruptured areas.
Infection does not seem to cause the death of a tissue.
The Effect of Gall Formation on the Growth of Fagus.
The formation of galls on the branches of Fagus seldom seems to do the tree serious injury. Since no tissues are killed and since, in most cases, there is a considerable part of the stem at the level of the gall which contains normal tissues, the passage of food materials and water up and down the stem is not unduly restricted. Very large and apparently healthy trees were observed to be heavily covered with galls (Plate i, fig. 1). In one case a large gall was observed on the main trunk of a tall living tree within a few feet of the ground.
Suggested Means of Infection.
A macroscopic examination shows that large branches have only old galls, never young ones. The young galls are found only on young stems, indicating that primary infection takes place only when the stem is young. It would be impossible for mycelium to penetrate the hard bark of an old stem. If an invading hypha entered through a lenticel, it would still have to cross the cortex, in which there are one to several bands of stone cells, and the phloem before it could infect the cambium, which has been shown to be the centre of infection in the gall.
There is no trace of fungal mycelium in the primary xylem or pith. In the galls examined the first trace of infection occurs in the xylem and phloem of the second year’s growth. These observations suggest the following hypothesis as to how infection may take place. During the late spring and early summer, October to early December at Barrington Tops, the spores of Cyttaria mature and are blown through the air in great numbers. At the same time the young shoots of Fagus are elongating and are still covered with a somewhat hairy epidermis. Secondary thickening commences in these young shoots towards the end of the zrowing season. The spore, alighting on the epidermis of the young shoots, germinates and the germ tube penetrates the epidermis and the cortex. The
BY JANET M. WILSON. 7
mycelium then probably remains dormant until the beginning of the next spring, either in the cortex or in one of the medullary rays, or, most probably, in the young cambium. When secondary growth begins in the following year, it infects the young xylem and phloem cells as they are developing, and this process goes on yearly. The mycelium also infects the cambium in a longitudinal direction.
Summary.
Cyttaria septentrionalis Herb. is a parasitic fungus which infects the stems of Fagus Moorei in New South Wales.
Infection results in the formation of galls very varied in shape and size.
Wedge-shaped areas of infection occur in the stem. Usually one side of the stem is not affected, but contains normal tissue. A gall may be the result of one or more infections and thus may be called simple or compound.
The age and growth-rate of an infected area can be calculated by observing its relationship to the annual rings of the stem.
The tissues infected are the primary cortex, secondary phloem, cambium, and secondary xylem. The xylem contains three groups of cells, normal elements, parenchymatous cells containing mycelium, and tracheidal cells, containing no mycelium but modified as a result of the infection of the neighbouring cells. Starch is present in the young tracheidal cells.
The cambium, phloem and primary cortex consist only of normal cells and parenchymatous cells containing mycelium. A smaller area in the cortex is infected than in the xylem, but in old galls the increase in phloem tissue is proportionate to that in the xylem.
The mycelium is septate, thin walled and 1- to 3-nucleate. It is both inter- and intra-cellular, and produces irregularly-shaped haustoria. It is distributed evenly throughout the tissue it invades, except just below the fruiting bodies, where it almost completely fills the cells.
The haustorium approaches the nucleus and partially coils round it, causing its enlargement or lobing, though it does not destroy it. The host cells are not killed. In some eases cells appear to arise which are free of infection.
Infection of the stem causes enlargement due to increase in the number of cells. This is most pronounced in the xylem and phloem, very little increase taking place in the other tissues. The bark is thicker outside infected areas because of the increase in the amount of the phloem, and is much ruptured and scarred.
Galls do not appear to cause serious damage to, or restrict the growth of, the trees on which they grow.
Macroscopic and microscopic examinations suggest that the mycelium from the germinating spores enters the young stem during the late spring or early summer, just before secondary thickening begins or while it is taking place. The mycelium then probably remains dormant in or near the cambium until the beginning of the second year’s growth. It then proceeds to infect the young xylem and phloem cells and continues to do so from year to year. The mycelium also travels along the cambium in a longitudinal direction.
In conclusion, the writer wishes to thank Assistant Professor J. McLuckie
and Miss Lilian Fraser for their interest and helpful suggestions throughout the course of this work.
8 GALLS FORMED BY CYTTARIA SEPTENTRIONALIS.
Literature Cited.
HERBERT, D. A., 1930.—Cyttaria septentrionalis, A new Fungus attacking Nothofagus Moorei in Queensland and New South Wales. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xli, 158-161.
Wixbson, J. M., 1935.—A species of Cyttaria, apparently C. septentrionalis. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ix (5-6), pp. xlii-xliii.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES I-II. Plate i.
1.—Small branch of Fagus Moorei, showing numerous galls. x 0:07.
2.—Part of a branch of Fagus Moorei showing a long, narrow gall. x 0:6.
3.—Part of a branch of Fagus Moorei showing a round, short gall. x 0:6.
4a, 4b.—Two views of a compound gall. The various components of the gall are shown at A, B, C and D. a, b, c, ete., mark the places from which the sections repre- sented diagrammatically in Text-figure 1 were cut. x 0:6.
5.—Portion of a transverse section of a gall showing areas infected by Cyttaria. A. wedge-shaped area of uninfected xylem; B, infected cambium; C, annual rings; D, infected xylem. x 37.
6.—Radial longitudinal section of portion of a young stem of Fagus showing normal wood structure. x 210.
7.—Tangential longitudinal section of portion of a young stem of Fagus showing normal wood structure. x 210.
Plate ii.
8.—Transverse section of portion of a gall. A, infected cells containing mycelium ; B, tracheidal cells; C, normal xylem. x 865.
9.— Tangential longitudinal section of part of an old gall showing tracheidal cells. Gols
10-12.—-Transverse sections of parts of galls showing tracheidal cells. 10, x 875; iil, 3¢ Bas WA, 3c 4',
13.—Transverse section of part of an old gall showing the loss of radial arrange- ment of the xylem. x 45.
14.—Transverse section of part of a gall showing starch grains in the young tracheidal cells. x 45.
15.—Transverse section of part of a normal stem of Fagus showing phloem (P) and phelloderm (X). x 85.
16.—Transverse section of infected phloem showing increase in number of cells due to infection. x 8d.
PLATE I.
N.S.W., 1937.
Proc. Linn. Soc.
Se >
eee.
ya Ghee
Moorei.
agus
Galls on F
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937. PLATE II.
Sections of galls on Fagus Moorei.
ENTOZOA FROM THE AUSTRALIAN HAIR SEHAL. By T. Harvey JOHNSTON, Professor of Zoology, University of Adelaide. (Twelve Text-figures. )
[Read 31st March, 1937.]
In January, 1923, Professor F. Wood Jones, F.R.S., led a small biological party which visited Pearson Island, lying about twenty-five miles off the west coast of Hyre’s Peninsula, South Australia. Amongst the material obtained were some entozoa collected by Professor J. B. Cleland from the Australian hair seal, Arctocephalus forsteri (Lesson). No species of parasite has, as yet, been recorded from our pinnipeds. Amongst the ectozoa known to occur on the hair seal may be mentioned a Pediculid, probably an undescribed species of Antarctophthirius or Hchinophthirius. The entozoa referred to in this paper belong to three species, namely, a cestode, Diphyllobothrium arctocephalinum, n. sp.; a nematode, Contra- caecum osculatum (Rud.); and an echinorhynch, Corynosoma australe, n. sp. The types of the new species have been deposited in the South Australian Museum, Adelaide.
DIPHYLLOBOTHRIUM ARCTOCEPHALINUM, nN. sp. Figs. 1-7.
In the intestine of Arctocephalus forsteri there was found a tangled mass of cestodes whose separation resulted in some fragmentation. A specimen bearing a scolex was 17 cm. long, the terminal 5 centimetres bearing eggs. A fragment of another strobila was about 44 cm. in length, approximately 40 cm. of it being ovigerous. If one matched these two fragments according to the sizes of their segments and their reproductive condition, the total length of an unbroken strobila would be not less than 54 cm., of which more than 40 cm. would probably be egg-bearing. Segments which had just become ovigerous were nearly one milli- metre long and 5 mm. broad, and sufficiently overlapping the succeeding proglottis to give a slightly serrate margin to the strobila. In strongly contracted strobilae the serrations were much more pronounced. Segments in the mid-region of the scolex-less strobila, mentioned above, were about 5 mm. wide and 2°5 to 3:1 mm. long, whilst those near the posterior end measured 6 mm. in width by 3:7 mm. in length.
Another fragment, 36 mm. long, possessed a markedly crinkled margin and all its segments were egg-bearing, but they were considerably wider and shorter anteriorly, 6 mm. and 1-5 mm. respectively, than in the corresponding portion of the other strobila. The length gradually increased to 3 mm. in segments at the end of specimen, the breadth becoming 8 mm. Hence, at first sight, there appeared to be two species represented in the material, but the anatomy was similar and the differences in dimensions were due no doubt to the state of muscular contraction.
The scolex was narrower than the succeeding segments, but, when viewed laterally, was seen to be at least twice as thick as the neck region. The dimensions varied according to the state of contraction. When relaxed the breadth was
F
10 ENTOZOA FROM AUSTRALIAN HAIR SEAL,
0-65 mm. and the length from the tip to the posterior end of the bothrial groove was 1:5 to 2 mm., the very thin edge of one bothrium slightly overlapping the other (figs. 1, 2). The maximum dorsoventral thickness was 0:75 ecm. The groove in some specimens extended back above the earliest segments. In one scolex the bothria were rather wider and the groove shorter, the organ being 0-95 mm. in breadth, 2:0 mm. in length, with a thickness of 1:5 mm. (fig. 3), the anterior extremity thus being almost round when viewed laterally (fig. 4).
There is a very short unsegmented neck, but since the bothrial grooves enter it, this region should perhaps be regarded more correctly as merely the narrowed
Figs. 1-7.—Diphyllobothrium arctocephalinum.
1, 2, Scolex, face and lateral views; 3, 4, a larger scolex, face and lateral views; 5, segment in which the uterus has just become egg-bearing, ventral; 6, mature segment, ventral (scale above); 7, portion of transverse section of mature segment to show relation of various glands and ducts.
(Figs. 1-5 drawn to scale indicated below Fig. 4.)
References to lettering.—aev, ? accessory excretory vessel; b, bothrium; bm, base- ment membrane; c, cirrus; cya, common genital aperture; cs, cirrus sac; cu, cuticle; d, tissue at side of scolex, between bothria; dev, dorsal excretory vessel; Im, longi- tudinal musculature; m, medulla; ov, ovary; p, boundary (dotted) of vitelline zone; rs, receptaculum seminis; sec, subcuticular cells; sclm, subcuticular longitudinal muscle fibres; t, testis; tm, transverse muscles; wu, uterus; wa, uterine aperture; v, vagina; va, vaginal aperture; vev, ventral excretory vessel; vs, vesicula seminalis; vt, vitelline glands.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON. 11
portion of the scolex. The breadth of this part is from 0-7 to 1:9 mm., with a thickness of 0-3 to 0-6 mm.
The common genital opening lies in the midline ventrally at, or just behind, the mid-length of the segment. The opening is a transverse or rounded slit, according to the degree of retraction or protrusion of the cirrus. Into the posterior wall of the genital atrium there opens the much smaller slit-like vaginal aperture, whose walls are well chitinized. Behind these openings is the tocostome or uterine aperture situated a little to one or other side of the median line (or sometimes in the mid-line) as a transverse slit at whose narrow base the metraterm terminates. In whole mounts the mid-region of each ripe or maturing segment shows the presence of differentiated tissue, apparently medulla, in front of the cirrus sac and extending almost to the anterior end of the proglottis. A series of short transverse grooves or folds are commonly associated with this region, but no differentiated organs were noticed there.
Transverse sections reveal the presence of a thick cuticle below which is a narrow, well-defined, less deeply staining, basement membrane, succeeded by sub- cuticular structures, the very large elongate fusiform cells being a marked feature. The sub-cuticular longitudinal muscle fibres are fairly well marked, but the transverse fibres are very minute. The cortex is occupied largely by the abundant vitellaria arranged in a single row dorsally and ventrally. The main longitudinal musculature forms a wide zone, the individual fibres being powerful and arranged more or less in small groups not completely separated to form distinct bundles. The transverse muscles are much less deeply staining. Dorso-ventral fibres are weakly developed. The medulla is relatively very narrow and contains many ecaleareous corpuscles. It is occupied largely by the testes, ovary and uterus.
The main excretory canals are remote from the margins of the strobila, both have a wavy course, and the narrower dorsal vessel lies nearer to the median line of the segment. Both sets of canals have muscle fibres in their walls. Transverse canals are absent, but small sinuous branching canals pass from the main channels into the tissues. Sometimes these branches are large and, when seen in transverse section, resemble the main canals in size. In addition to the canals just referred to, there is, on either side, lying in the middle of the medulla just inwardly from the level of the dorsal excretory canal, a very definite canal with cuticular walls and abundant fine longitudinal fibres (apparently muscular). It has a sinuous course like the other vessels and appears to be a supplementary excretory canal, since communication with other systems has not been traced. The ovarian lobes may extend laterally to the vicinity of these canals and actually overlie them dorsally. The tissue surrounding them is more differentiated than that around the ordinary excretory ducts. Their position suggested that they might be the two vasa deferentia, but the failure to trace any connection with the vesicula seminalis seems to negative the suggestion.
The testes did not stain in whole mounts, but were obvious in sections, though the state of fixation of the material was not sufficiently good to allow one to study these organs satisfactorily. They are very numerous and occupy most of the medulla in the region where they occur, and they tend to approach its upper border. Their boundary is much less sharply defined than that of the vitellaria. They measure 0:03—0:046 mm. in diameter, these dimensions being based on their appearance in transverse and horizontal sections. They are restricted to two definite testicular fields which are widely separated in the mid-region of the segment, but which join to form a very narrow band near the anterior margin. The testicular and vitelline zones seem to coincide, except laterally, where the
12 ENTOZOA FROM AUSTRALIAN HAIR SEAL,
medulla is absent. The yolk glands lie above and below the testes and occur almost to the lateral margin of the segment. A considerable pyriform area with its base in the posterior part of the proglottis is devoid of both these glands, but is occupied in its hinder half largely by the mature uterus.
Above the anterior portion of the uterus, as well as in front of that organ, is the large, elliptical, rather thick-walled, vesicula seminalis, about 0:23 mm. long and 0-015 mm. wide, lying somewhat obliquely. From it there issues a short narrow ejaculatory duct surrounded by the large muscular, circular, or rather spherical, cirrus sac whose outer boundary is ill-defined. This sac is ventral from the vesicula. The everted cirrus is about 0:1 mm. long and 0:05 mm. in diameter, narrowing towards its free end. There is a definite atrium when the organ is fully retracted, the male pore lying in front of the vaginal aperture which is located on its posterior wall.
The vagina is well chitinized in the vicinity of the genital pore and passes backwards a very short distance and then upwards below the cirrus sac, becoming suddenly widened and thrown into a number of very thin-walled convolutions in a horizontal plane, but these coils do not extend very far on either side of the midline as the organ makes its way posteriorly immediately below the uterus, close to whose ventral wall it lies pressed. Just in front of the ovary, the vagina forms a rather large receptaculum which is twisted or curved and extends below and just behind the ovarian bridge to become connected with the fertilizing duct by a very narrow short canal.
The ovary does not stain readily in whole mounts, and is best studied in sections. It lies in the posterior portion of the segment, closely behind the uterus. The main mass on either side is of a delicate branching structure whose branches may unite to form a reticulum as they radiate outwardly and forwards. The lobes extend practically to the testiculo-vitelline region and tend to occupy the upper portion of the medulla, whereas those parts nearer the midline lie ventrally in the medulla, the narrow ovarian bridge lying ventrally from the hind portion of the uterus. An oocapt appears to be present. The short oviduct is soon joined by the receptaculum and the fertilizing duct now formed is joined by the rather wide yolk duct and then surrounded by the mass of shell glands. The canal now becomes curved and bent on itself, and then suddenly widening into the uterus which passes forwards and is thrown into a series of about eight to ten trans- versely-lying coils or loops. As the organ becomes more densely packed with eggs it becomes more rosette-like and swollen and the individual loops less distinct. The terminal loop is surrounded by thickened walls as it passes directly ventrally, the metraterm ending at the uterine pore some distance behind the common genital opening, and frequently a little to one or other side of the midline. Eggs are elliptical, measuring 0-052 to 0:057 mm. long by 0-035 to 0-038 mm. wide.
Yolk glands are extremely numerous and very small when seen in surface view, where they are commonly elongate in the direction transversely to the longitudinal axis of the segment. The vesicles are restricted to form two wide lateral zones which approach in the anterior half of the segment and eventually join to form a narrow band. They occupy a large part of the cortex ventrally and dorsally between the inner ends of the subcuticular cells and the main longi- tudinal musculature. They measure 0:030 to 0:057 mm. in maximum length by 0-01 to 0:013 mm. in width, and 0-030 to 0:040 mm. in dorsoventral diameter. The two main vitelline ducts pass inwards just behind, or just below, the ovarian bridge and unite to form a short common duct which enters the fertilizing duct.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON. 13
The present species can be separated readily from D. latum, D. cordatum, D. fuscum, and D. ranarum, by the fact that in these species the uterine loops extend forwards to the sides of the genital pore. Though our species resembles D. mansoni and D. houghtoni in this feature, it differs from them in the arrange- ment of the loops. From D. houghtoni it differs also in the distribution of the testicular and vitelline fields, but it resembles D. mansoni in these respects. Baylis (1929) stated that in D. mansoni the very numerous testes were not arranged in distinct lateral fields, but Faust’s figure (1930) indicates that they are. The form of the scolex and uterus, as well as the position of the genital pore, differentiate D. arctocephalinum from D. reptans and D. ranarum as described by Meggitt (1924; 1925). The shape of the scolex and of the neck region distinguishes our species from D. cordatum, D. mansoni, and many others. In D. decipiens the uterine loops are few and do not form a rosette. The dimensions of the strobila distinguish the Australian species from the small species described from southern seals.
The position of the common genital pore in relation to the length of the segment differentiates the species from nearly all others, since in D. arcto- cephalinum it lies either at, or behind, the midlength, whereas in others it is situated in front. The presence of the modified tissue extending forwards along the midline from the genital pore is a conspicuous feature in cleared, stained or unstained preparations. The dimensions of the eggs are different from those of all other species whose descriptions are available. The species which seems most nearly related anatomically is D. mansoni, but the main points of difference have been mentioned above. No cestode has been identified previously from Australian pinnipeds, though many are known from antarctic and subantarctic species.
The keys to species given by Meggitt (1924), Baylis (1929) and Sprehn (1932) have been consulted.
CONTRACAECUM OSCULATUM (Rud.).
This widely distributed nematode was represented by a young female specimen which exhibited the characteristic structure of the lips and the abundant fine striations at the anterior end. The species is known from northern seals as well as from several species which occur in the Subantarctic and Antarctic. It had not previously been recorded from Australian seals.
CoRYNOSOMA AUSTRALE, n. sp. Figs. 8-12.
This minute parasite of Arctocephalus forsteri measures about 3:5 mm. in length, though specimens were examined ranging from 3 to 4 mm. Both sexes are similar in size and general form. The anterior body forms a rounded disc- like structure about 1:3 mm. in diameter, more or less flattened ventrally but arched dorsally, this region bearing very numerous, small, regularly arranged, spines. The rest of the body narrows rapidly and then becomes cylindrical for the last third of the total body-length where the diameter is 0-:35-0-4 mm. The posterior end is rounded and is provided in both sexes with two circlets of spines (total 28-30) which are much larger than those on the rest of the body, and, as in other species of the genus, they give rise to triangular projections of the cuticle. Small spines similar to those on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the dise are present on the ventral surface of the anterior part of the posterior body, the terminal quarter or fifth of the body-length being devoid of them except for the terminal group. The two best-known species, both occurring in eared seals (amongst other hosts) in the northern hemisphere, are C. semerme (Forsk.) and
14 ENTOZOA FROM AUSTRALIAN HAIR SEAL,
C. strumosum (Rud.). The Australian parasite resembles the former in general form and size, but the distribution of the small spines is more like that in C. strumosum where, however, from more than a half (Meyer’s figure, 1932) to two-fifths (Ltihe’s figure, 1911) of the body-length ventrally is devoid of them. The ratio of the diameter of the disc to that of the cylindrical posterior body (based on figures published by Liihe and by Meyer) is about 2-4:1 in the case of C. strumosum; about 2:1 in C. semerme; and 3:1 in C. australe. The ratio
fie a HA a i (MS
Vill
Figs. 8-12.—Corynosoma australe.
8, ventral view of male; 9, lateral view of male; 10, posterior end of male; 11, posterior end of female (dorsal view); 12, rostellar hooks belonging to one longitudinal row and marked i-xiii according to their position from the free end of the proboscis.
(Figs. 8 and 9 are drawn to the scale indicated beside 8; 10 and 11 to scale above 11.)
References to lettering.—b, bursa: cd, cement duct; cg, cement glands; ls, most posterior spine on ventral surface; ms, muscular sac (‘‘markbeutel’’) ; p, penis; uw, uterus; v, vagina; vd, vas deferens.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON. 15
of the length of the disc to the total body-length is about 1:2-3—2-6 in C. strumosum; 1:1-3-1:6 in C.. semerme; and 1:1-4 in C. australe. C. strumosum measures about 5 to 6 mm., but sometimes reaching 9 mm. in length; while C. semerme is only about 3 mm. (3-5 mm.).
The arrangement of the caudal spines in C. australe resembles that in C. constrictum as figured by Van Cleave (1918) and quite unlike that in C. semerme, where they are very abundant and the series joins up with the ventral body spines.
The proboscis in C. australe is about 0-7 mm. long, narrowed in its anterior third, but widening to 0:2 mm. behind its mid-length and then narrowing only slightly towards its base. The proboscis length is thus about one-fifth that of the body, but in C. strumosum it is less than one-sixth, and in C. semerme it is more than one-quarter. The form of the organ in (©. australe is rather slender, as in C. strumosum. There are 18 longitudinal rows of hooks, 13 to 14 in each row, a total of about 240. In C. strwmosum there are also 18 rows, but each has 10 to 12 hooks; in C. semerme there are 22 to 24 rows each with 12 to 13 hooks. The hooks in C. australe are differentiated, the first four in each row being rather long, narrow, and pointed, the free portion measuring about 0:04 mm. in each case, while the basal part which lies in the proboscis is about 0:03 mm. in the first hook, increasing in succeeding hooks to become as long as the free portion in the fourth. From the fifth to tenth, the projecting portion is larger and more powerful, and the base as long as, or slightly longer than, the free part, but there is little, if any, increase in the length of the free portion (0:042 mm.; base 0:045 mm.). The eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth hooks (and fourteenth, if present) in each row are small and diminish slightly in length (0:025-0:023 mm.) and possess little or no basal portion. The arrangement of the hooks and their relative sizes are more like those of C. strumosum than those of C. semerme.
The proboscis sheath is double-walled, long and narrow (1:1 mm. by 0-25 mm.). The ganglion is in the vicinity of its mid-length. The lemnisci are thin, narrow structures each about half the length and breadth of the rostellar sheath. The delicate net-like lacunar system in the skin is typical of members of the genus.
The testes, each 0:04 mm. in diameter, are arranged one just a little more anteriorly than the other in that part of the body which contains the dise. The three pairs of narrow cement glands have an arrangement and form very like that in Corynosoma semerme. The lower end of the combined cement gland of each side is considerably swollen to form a fusiform structure. The ejaculatory duct opens into a short pointed penis projecting into an extensive bursa with folded walls when introverted. There is a large muscular sac (‘“markbeutel’’). The male system closely resembles that of C. semerme as described by Liihe (1911) and Bieler (1914).
In the female, the uterus is long, narrow, and thick-walled, terminating in a short muscular folded vagina which appears to be made up of three short sections. The female aperture is terminal. In some specimens a ‘copulation cap” of cement was present resembling that figured by Van Cleave for C. constrictum. Eggs from the body cavity measure 0-075 to 0-085 mm. by 0-023 to 0:029 mm., with a short broad polar process at each end of the middle shell like that figured by Liihe and by Meyer.
In addition to C. semerme and C. strumosum, the following species have been described from seals: C. hamanni Linst. (C. antarcticum Rennie, C. sipho Raill. and Henry), and C. bullosum lLinst. from the Antarctic and Subantarctic; C. reductum lLinst., a rather large immature form from the Arctic; and
16 ENTOZOA FROM AUSTRALIAN HAIR SEAL.
C. ambispinigerum Harada from a Japanese Phoca sp. An account of the last- named is not available for comparison.
Corynosoma sp. is the only species of the genus recorded from Australian waters, having been reported by Johnston and Deland (1929) from a dolphin, Delphinus delphis, in St. Vincent’s Gulf. Lthe (1911) mentioned having met with C. semerme in an immature condition once in Otaria jubata and once in Spheniscus demersus. The former is one of the South American seals and the latter is the South African penguin. C. strumosum is known from northern European seals and cormorants; Ball (1930) identified it from the Californian harbour seal (Phoca richardii), and Meyer (1932) stated that it occurred in Phalacrocoraxz capensis in former German South-west Africa.
NOTES ON GENUS CALLIPHORA (DIPTERA). CLASSIFICATION, SYNONYMY, DISTRIBUTION AND PHYLOGENY.
By G. H. Harpy. (One Text-figure.) [Read 31st March, 1937.]
The difficulties met in taxonomic study are responsible for considerable differences in the treatment of Australian species of Calliphora. Many promising studies have proved inadequate to meet the needs of the research worker, and although progress is being made in the study of details of morphology, so far there is no generally accepted scheme for their classification.
Actually the work was undertaken first by Johnston and Hardy in 1922, but hardly any progress could be made owing to the lack of a suitable method of treating the terminalia. The problem was taken up again in later years by myself, but in the meanwhile material had been sent to Malloch, resulting in a paper that the late EH. W. Ferguson (These PROCEEDINGS, lii, 1927, p. xxiv) considered would solve the problem.
Some progress in the taxonomy of Australian Calliphoras was made in my paper of 1930, followed by another in 1932. The first of these brought considerable adverse comment at the time, but the attitude I had taken up in my treatment was subsequently acknowledged as leading somewhere. I do not think, however, that it was sufficiently recognized that the specific identities I had given rested largely on field observations which are difficult to set down in print. There were certain biological features arising from my studies, and I concluded that there are units in the Australian Calliphoras that cannot be isolated on terminalia alone, as far as yet known, but can be ascertained on colour and small structural characters that remain consistent for the species, not grading from one to another as at first would be supposed. These cases are represented by C. rufipes Macq. and fallax Hardy; by C. augur Fab. and nociva Hardy; by C. tibialis Macq. and perida, a new species described below. I have not found any area where the first two meet, but the distributions of the others overlap.
The arrangements of the species within this genus, given by Professor W. S. Patton (1935) and by myself, are at variance. Patton makes three main groups based on the type of terminalia the species exhibit. On the other hand, as will be seen below, this is not so very different from my arrangement, the differences lying mainly in the position where the dividing lines are to be drawn. The true relationship will be gathered when all features of the fly are considered phylo- genetically, and I would be in agreement with Professor Patton if he were to limit his view on affinities and if he did not make the development of the terminalia cover the whole species. There can be no doubt that Professor Patton, in arranging his studies along the line he has taken, is making a very big step in advance in our understanding of terminalia, but it is my impression that he carries his conclusions to a stage that is a too liberal rendering of his discoveries. A comparison of our respective methods of classification is to be gathered in the following list, where I have marked with an asterisk (*) those species in which I have an intimate knowledge of terminalia. The list is only complete as far as
G
18 NOTES ON GENUS CALLIPHORA,
the subgenus Proekon. The remainder has been so confused in literature that I am unable at present to give a satisfactory account of the species concerned.
Subgenus ApbIcHosIA Surcouf ochracea-group. *ochracea Schiner nigrithorax Malloch
Subgenus CALLIPHORA Desvoidy erythrocephala-group *eyrthrocephala Meigen. (introduced)
Subgenus NEOPOLLENIA Brauer stygia-group *stygia Fabricius *qustralis Boisduval *laemica White
canimicans-group *canimicans Hardy *beszeit Hardy auriventris Malloch
sternalis-group *sternalis Malloch *deflexra Hardy
rufipes-group *rufipes Macquart *fallax Hardy *milleri, n. sp. *fulvicoxa Hardy sp. (from Western Australia)
tibialis-group *tibialis Macquart *perida, n. sp.
Subgenus PROEKON Surcouf augur-group *augur Fabricius *nociva Hardy
centralis-group *centralis Malloch
*falciformis Hardy macleayi Malloch *fuscofemorata Malloch
Subgenus Ones1a Desvoidy dispar Macquart australica Malloch and others
These three sections form the erythro-- cephala-group of Patton.
Together with fuscofemorata, these two sections form the canimicans- group of Patton.
Together with australica Malloch,,. these four sections form the augur- group of Patton.
Forms not yet dealt with by Patton mostly come here, but probably would be placed in the augur-group by him, or some separated into another section, canimicans-group, or elsewhere.
Key to groups and species in genus Calliphora
(combining Patton’s leading discoveries).
1. Eyes hairy. Strut of aedeagus free.*
Ovipositor long. Abdomen yellowish. ADICHOSIA.—ochracea-group ...... 10:
* Patton states, under ochracea, that the strut is not free but “‘the end is attached to membrane’. This must be an error, for on fresh material the struts will slip out of their membraneous sockets quite readily, as in those of stygia.
i
a
10.
11.
16.
18.
il®s
BY G. H. HARDY. 19
Strutotsaed caplusetree Ovi posiLonplone mer oisiaiericeee eae eco 3 Strut of aedeagus fixed to other parts by membrane throughout its whole length.
Ovipositor possibly; ralwayse Shontwe eee eee eee eee 4 IBIUNEH SPECIES He ee anis SFG AL can terhe aCe eee CALLIPHORA.—erythrocephala-group.
(One species only, erythrocephala Meigen, introduced.) Densely tomentose and hairy species; abdomen brown ................-++ee0eee:
Dita SG ISEOIGtS Eas GAS NERO ans ica NEOPOLLENIA.—stygia-group ...... 11 Densely tomentose species; abdomen brown ..................cceceeeeeececcs 5 Abdomen mothenwise scolour ed! a hyn apiece cee Ved Seis desea ied oaerd sa ease eee 8
Without secondary plates on male terminalia With secondary plates developed on male terminalia, these lying adjacent to acces- sory plates, closing the genital cavity. Ovipositor not examined ..............
a-Gidio. chold ososcto. 4.0. aloraireeiacita.c 8 omeanic:olo-clacch Sic Geer cee bron eis aL sternalis-group. ...... 15 Strut reaching almost to apex of aedeagus which lies considerably to the rear of the strut. Ovipositor not examined .............. canimicans-group ...... 13
Strut short in relation to the length of aedeagus so that the tip of the aedeagus (orifice) lies noticeably beyond the apex of the strut and almost in a line with
it eMOVIPOSItornd SHORE: adr eS eT RR here ae Son Ha De ehabene. ca pees 7% Abdominal segment incorporated in the terminalia, of the typical broad type. Abdomen always with yellow hairs ................ rufipes-group ...... 16 Abdominal segment incorporated in terminalia, of the narrow type (unique to group). Abdomen never with yellow hairs. ........ tibialis-group. ...... 19 Abdomen mainly yellow with a blue central area on dorsum. Ovipositor short as DIRS (AKIO WAT eg eapsye levee sure eh ot chs ee Renee eae Golo aaiee ai este see pilots Le PROEKON. ...... 9 Abdomen entirely blue, or rarely the last segment otherwise coloured ...... ? ONESIA
Frons on female much wider than long. Two presutural acrostichal bristles only. By Ok BES) Choices Sta InECEeat ntl Rt rE cicnees & ei auch Ol ASIN G an ABer Gre paae Lea SRAM AL eed Om 8 augur-group Frons on female about as wide as long. Three presutural acrostichal bristles OEESEM Cnet cee re teacyroaepiekei-y oon Rete em ere eevee ies eitag Le L-aa sr cechertveed ire tere msieewer centralis-group
Subgenus ADICHOSIA. Eyes on male almost contiguous. Thorax very densely covered with yellow, hiding
ThewSTroOuUnd=-COTOUM 6 chs sierra eae cratic enelae io) Sess etien era a leNeh sel ane lby oda sleeberaus ochracea Schiner Eyes on male widely separated, almost as wide as on female. Thorax with a very slight whitish covering not hiding the ground colour ...... nigrithorax Malloch
Subgenus NEOPOLLENIA. On the male the facets of the eyes are enlarged on the upper area and hence the eyes ATS MCOMCIEUOUS) hieteecirchcy cheueelensue reitewele ual siaoter Sus telrsnieuicn sya i jen ouenan slay cn seaitayis atevtemebcuarranattepsneyinrs 12 On the male the facets of the eyes are not enlarged above and hence the eyes are conspicuously separated. Anterior clasper on male is exceptionally long at its
base, thus being about as long there as high .............. australis Boisduval Anterior clasper normal at its base, being shorter than high .... stygia Fabricius Anterior clasper long at its base, as in australis, being about as long there as its
JaWed FES heer ce eee CREE prety ane uae nC RRRER OREN CLA lat nto GL ais er A IaeC uO QUANG A earch hice saute laemica White Abdomen iwatin eyelil Ome liaty; Siig seren s ciece suse sng erento weh auch ed cnsine teh anay AP Petite se wie Low ower escecatey «er eiel s 14 /Noyoloranern Walaa wie WOMlO Wy INEWIAS Solo gncpodods5oueHeouobaNGonoaDON auriventris Malloch Strut of aedeagus, at centre, conspicuously bent forwards ............ bezzii Hardy Strut of aedeagus very slightly bowed forward uniformly and without a marked
HOXeTOVOLL eS Arete Bote crramoncty a OREIAenS ELORB uci e eta foe cr choles. Geo IME id ee etcas 4 eemond yee canimicans Hardy Eyes of male separated by one-eighth the width of an eye. Legs slightly stained
SVL Er CD ee ceeecey avon irarenrcrewerace reeredclianres oleracea Use) ac: SHCb taal rapep tte usae Cuiren ous deflera Hardy Eyes of the male separated by one-seventh the width of an eye. Legs with the
Coxaewandsremonramentinelygblackarenesrcietrcierde tenet remeronenenereiciehe sternalis Malloch Three presutural acrostichals present. Anterior coxae always yellow. Eyes of male
separated by. the width of two ocelli ................--..-.- fulvithorax Hardy Only two presutural acrostichals present. Anterior coxae dark .............. il'7/ Strut of aedeagus reaching only half-way towards the orifice ........ milleri, n. sp. Strut of aedeagus reaching two-thirds the distance towards the orifice .......... 18 Eyes of the male separated by the width of two ocelli .............. fallax Hardy Eyes of the male separated by the width of only one ocellus ...... rufipes Macquart
Femora entirely black, tibiae more or less reddish-brown. All pleural hairs blacik OTN ELE She ene eR Rhett Ma wen ata alle ta), ate taheahemerteieneiets cl aa Ass chal Cteret esos aire tibialis Macquart Femora never entirely black, but brown and often more or less darkened over the basal half or two-thirds. Some pleural hairs yellow ............ perida, n. sp.
20 NOTES ON GENUS CALLIPHORA,
The synonymy of species in Neopollenia.
Malloch referred to ten species of Neopollenia in his papers, and his distin- guishing characters are so unsatisfactory that I do not find it easy to determine their exact identity. Below I give the evidence on which I have placed his forms. Some are yet to be checked on Malloch’s original material, none of which has come before me.
C. stygia—Malloch apparently had a complex under this name, judging on localities alone, for the species is unknown from New Zealand. The locality from which he illustrates the terminalia is not given, but probably this was somewhere in eastern Australia. His second reference gives “Swan River’; that, if adequately identified, must be C. australis. Only one specimen of C. stygia has ~ been captured in Western Australia, and this is recognized as being an abnormal occurrence. Malloch’s third reference is without specified locality.
C. australis—The name is definitely rejected by Malloch on the view that it is either a synonym of stygia or else unrecognizable.
C. fulvicoxa.—The name is accepted by Malloch, who admits having it confused under hilli.
C. rufipes——This name is referred to in two places on the same page, the remarks being ambiguous. First, he proposed dropping the name in favour of his interpretation of hilli, which he erroneously claimed to be a well-established species; then he says the species was originally described from Java, and referred it to Hemilucilia, believing it to be not Australian. There is reason to suppose he did not examine the description of Pollenia rujfipes Macquart, 1835, which is the reference of the Australian species, the Javanese one being put into another genus by its author.
Calliphora hili Patton (nec Malloch) .—It is advisable to state here that there is no evidence to support the view that Malloch had seen this species and Malloch’s references must be placed elsewhere.
C. hilli Malloch (nec Patton).—This was possibly based originally on C. fallaz, and, as his material included three females from Eungella (Queensland), I was able to recognize that these, at least, were probably ©. fulvicoxa, which later Malloch admitted. However, he rejected the view that the other specimens he had were C. fallax. I have seen no material from his locality “Barrington Tops’. Malloch’s further reference to C. hilli occurring in New Zealand is also at fault, and I have given this a new name below.
C. auriventris Malloch.— Known from a single female from the Fly River district. The description being inadequate for its recognition, the name stands in abeyance. There is known to me only one species that conforms to Malloch’s description, and the specimens are from Tasmania, suggesting that I have not identified the species with any degree of assurance. My own references under the name belong to the Tasmanian species, and the determination is probably erroneous.
C. sternalis Malloch.—I believe I have placed this species successfully. The only character of importance that Malloch gives concerns the ventral plate of the terminalia, the apical sternite being conspicuously lobed, otherwise the species would have been quite unrecognizable.
C. tibialis——Doubtless there is some misunderstanding in the determination of this well-recognized species, with which the original description does not agree. Brauer referred it to Neopollenia, evidently relying on Schiner’s determination, but Malloch states that Schiner has two species of villosa standing under the
BY G. H. HARDY. Al
name amongst his material. I have been very loath to accept the name as more than a provisional one. Patton has compared specimens with the type, and it is generally recognized under the name in Patton‘s sense. However, I have isolated one form, giving it the name perida. This new form, apparently limited to Queensland, could hardly have reached Macquart, and so the name seems warranted.
C. albifrontalis Malloch, 1932.—Regarded by me as being quite unrecognizable from description, but Tillyard records it as a synonym of australis (Tillyard and Seddon, Council Sci. and Ind. Res., Pamphl. 37, 1933, p. 11, footnote). Patton claims that it is identical with fulvicora after examining the terminalia. Malloch only had two males of it and Patton does not say if one of these formed the determination of genital characters, or some other material. However, as Patton’s view so readily coincides with the description, I believe it must be correct.
C. varifrons Malloch, 1932.—This is another species unrecognizable from the description. Patton states it is rufipes, but there was only one male in Malloch’s material and the description reads like australis in many respects. There is a form corresponding to rufipes in Western Australia, but this does not agree with Malloch’s description and perhaps Patton has this form confused owing to Malloch’s comparisons with his hilli. The name varifrons can have no specific standing at present, and any further data should be based on Malloch’s holotype specimen, for it is quite conceivable that he has a complex in his material. At present the name stands hardly more than a nomen nudum, and at best refers to australis with only two acrostichals, a not uncommon occurrence in the stygia-group.
CALLIPHORA STYGIA Fab.
Musca stygia Fab. 1781; Wiedemann 1832.—Calliphora stygia Schiner 1868; Hardy 1930; Patton 1935.—Calliphora villosa Desvoidy 1830.
A fly normal to the south-eastern quarter of the Commonwealth, mainly the coastal region, including Tasmania, but also the sheep country of New South Wales and Queensland, and Sydney and Brisbane. One specimen only is known from Western Australia. It is well known to be associated with myasis, and occurs in its greatest density over the coastal region, including Adelaide and Melbourne.
CALLIPHORA AUSTRALIS Boisd.
Musca australis Boisduval 1835.—Calliphora australis Hardy 1930; Patton 1935.
Apparently this species is confined to Western Australia, where it is associated with myasis.
CALLIPHORA LAEMICA White.
Musca laemica White, Dieffenbach’s Travels in New Zealand, ii, 1843, 291. (All New Zealand references to stygia must be referred here.)
As far as yet known, this species is limited to New Zealand where it is associated with myasis. I have other specimens, females only, from Norfolk Island which might possibly come here.
CALLIPHORA FULVICOXA Hardy.
Calliphora fulvicoza Hardy 1930; Malloch 1932; Patton 1935.—C. hilli Malloch (nec Patton) in part, 1927.—C. albifrontalis Malloch 1932.
I have no personal knowledge of this occurring in Western Australia, but Patton recognized it in a form that he regards, probably quite correctly, as albifrontalis. It is common in the vicinity of Brisbane and Adelaide, showing it to be possibly a north-western species in contrast with the range of C. rujipes, the two meeting in Adelaide.
22 NOTES ON GENUS CALLIPHORA,
Little is known concerning the economy of this fly, but during experiments conducted by Miss Joan Cue, at the Queensland University, it was found to Ooviposit on carrion that had been retained several days, whereas C. fallax only oviposited in fresh carrion. It is unlikely that this fly will be found associated with myasis, as it is not normally reared from carrion and does not seem to be attracted to traps.
CALLIPHORA FALLAX Hardy.
Calliphora hili Malloch (nee Patton), in part, 1927; and in toto, 1932.— Calliphora fallax Hardy 1930; Patton 1935.
This fly is only known definitely from Queensland and New South Wales, being mainly a coastal fly, but found also in the sheep country in both States, where it is associated with myasis.
CALLIPHORA RUFIPES Macquart.
Pollenia rufipes Macquart 1835.—Calliphora rufipes Hardy 1930; Patton 1935.— Calliphora hilli Patton 1927 (nec Malloch).
The type localities given under the two original descriptions are practically identical, a few miles only separating the recorded places, and I have material before me from both. It is the common blowfly of that neighbourhood. Specimens are before me from Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia, but from no other State. Probably this species is capable of association with myasis, but the records standing under the name hilli are likely to refer to fallax, on the mainland of Australia, for the present fly seems strictly limited to the coastal region and is likely to be found in the interior only as an occasional migrant.
CALLIPHORA MILLERI, 0. Sp. Calliphora hilli Malloch (nec Patton), in part only, 1927.
This is the common blowfly of New Zealand that goes under the name Ailli, and I am indebted to Dr. D. Miller for specimens. I also have seen his drawings of terminalia which show quite distinctive features, the most noticeable being a superabundance of bristles on the claspers, the more gently curved strut and the much longer part lying beyond that relative to its two allies in Australia. It is also distinguishable by the eyes being placed apart slightly in excess of that found on rufipes. It is only known from New Zealand, where it is associated wita the myasis of sheep.
CALLIPHORA PERIDA, Nl. Sp.
Closely related to C. tibialis, from which it may be distinguished by its brown femora, typically brown but often more or less darkened from the base to about half to two-thirds the length, being very variable in this respect. The only other feature of difference that has been noted is in the pleura and anterior coxae, both, or either, having yellow hairs, the number varying. No difference has been found in the terminalia or in the width between the very closely set eyes.
This fly is only known to me from Queensland, being quite plentiful around Brisbane, and occurs throughout the year, being associated during much of the winter and spring periods with the typical C. tibialis. However, between these two flies there is also a marked difference in habit, perida sporting on bushes whereas tibialis is strictly confined to the ground. Through all the years that T have been collecting and watching this fly and observing its habits, I have not found any actual joining up of the two distinguishing characters. When the
BY G. H. HARDY. 23:
yellow pleural hairs are present, the femora are invariably brown in the main, whereas when no yellow hairs are to be seen, no brown is noted on the femora.
Hab.—Queensland. Brisbane; about 100 specimens are selected for the type series. Goondiwindi, 1 male.
Southern forms of the tibialis group also need close investigation, for I have specimens strongly suggesting that a complex occurs around Adelaide, and this
pc.
apl.
Calliphora perida, n. sp.—aed., aedeagus; a.c., anterior clasper; p.c., posterior
clasper; f., forceps; a.pl., accessory plate. Note the long narrow shape of the
apical tergite; the lower figure shows the parts as seen on a mount, the forceps being broader than appears in the lateral view, when unmounted.
possibly new species may be extending towards Melbourne. I judge this from 2 long series taken in the two States concerned. From Sydney and from Tasmania I have seen only the typical form without marked variations.
CALLIPHORA AUGUR Fab.
Musca augur Fabricius 1775.—Calliphora augur Patton 1925, 1935; Hardy 1926, 1930; Malloch 1927 in part, and 1928 in part.
The synonymy that stands tentatively under this species is rather extensive and it is possible the names do not all belong to the one species. On the published evidence it is not possible to attach the names to any other species known to me.
The present species occurs in Tasmania, Victoria and perhaps in certain mountain areas of New South Wales as a permanent resident; it is also found in the southern coastal regions of Queensland and in the sheep country of the two latter States as a seasonal fly only. The limit of its western occurrence is not known. It is associated with myasis.
CALLIPHORA NocIvA Hardy.
Calliphora augur Malloch 1927 and 1928 in part only, and many references in literature.—Calliphora nociva Hardy 1932; Patton 1935.
The permanent limits of this fly do not seem to extend eastward far beyond South Australia along the coastal region, but it is found in Melbourne and in Canberra. Its northern range includes Central Queensland, but apparently it does not enter the coastal region of this State, nor yet of New South Wales. It is associated with myasis. Possibly the fly is typical of the Mallee areas.
24 NOTES ON GENUS CALLIPHORA,
CALLIPHORA CENTRALIS Malloch.
"Caliphora centralis Malloch, 1927; Hardy 1932; Patton 1935.
The range of this species is wide enough to suggest that an earlier name may be found for it. It apparently occurs through the coastal region of New South Wales, north of Sydney and far up into the Queensland coastal section. Normally it is confined to timbered country of the plains and low hills, and appears also to be a permanent resident in timbered districts of the western plains of Queensland, 300 miles inland at least. It is not attracted by carrion, nor yet caught in traps, as far as my experience goes.
CALLIPHORA FUSCOFEMORATA Malloch.
Calliphora fuscofemorata Malloch 1927.
I have a male of this species taken from very near the type locality (caught by Miss V. Irwin-Smith) and have examined its terminalia. It would appear to be a good species that cannot be confused with any earlier description. The form is only known from the northern parts of Queensland, probably confined to the rain-forest areas, just as C. falciformis Hardy may prove to be in the more southern rain-forest areas. Judging from its terminalia, Patton was quite correct in placing it with the canimicans-group in order to be consistent in his scheme of classification. In accordance with my key to species under genus Proekon, it goes into a new group characterized not only by the terminalia, but also in having two presutural acrostichal bristles and the blue metallic margin at apex of abdominal segments, but I list it for the time being in the céentralis-complex; it does not agree with the definition of the group in the key given above.
Distribution.
The subgenus Adichosia is apparently limited to eastern Australia, and is represented by only two forms.
Neopollenia occurs in North Queensland, Norfolk Island, New Zealand, Tasmania, and Western Australia, which seem to.mark the limits of distribution. South-eastern Australia and Tasmania are the areas of its greatest abundance.
Proekon is known from New Caledonia, Australia, Tasmania, and is recorded from Timor; it may even occur in New Guinea. Queensland is the area of its greatest abundance.
The coastal region of Australia, for the purpose of this account, may be divided into four quadrants, north-west, south-west, north-east and south-east.
The north-western quadrant is practically an unknown region in regard to Calliphoras as no systematic collecting has been done there. As seen below, it may possibly prove to be the centre of distribution for C. fulvicora. The south-western quadrant has been under investigation during recent years. The eastern side of Australia has been well covered and is best known.
The data given in this paper suggest that each quadrant has its own particular fauna in permanent residence, but is invaded periodically from some other region by species that are unable to become permanently established.
ADICHOSIA.
This subgenus contains only two known species and is probably the most primitive of the Calliphoras. One species, ochracea, breeds throughout the year in the rain-forests within the north-eastern quadrant, and the other, nigrithorax, in similar conditions in the south-eastern quadrant. Elsewhere it appears to be a seasonal fly only.
BY G. H. HARDY. 25
NEOPOLLENIA.
The south-eastern quadrant has in permanent residence, stygia, rujipes and tibialis, three of the four first-described species. In addition, this is the only area in which bezzii and deflera are known, and there are other species (Tasmanian) yet to be described. The north-eastern quadrant has canimicans, sternalis, fallax and perida. The south-western quadrant has australis and a species near rufipes. The north-western quadrant may possibly be the centre of the widely distributed fulvicoxa, for this is unknown from the south-eastern quadrant except at Adelaide, but is recorded from Perth and was described from Brisbane. But it might similarly be regarded as a Central Australian species which reaches the coast at the places mentioned.
PROEKON.
This subgenus: has one species each in the south-western and the south-eastern quadrants, namely, nociva and augur respectively. The former extends its permanent range eastward to the border country of Victoria. All the other species known are practically limited to the north-eastern quadrant.
The two southern species may be breeding in different types of country, for nociva seems to favour the mallee areas, whereas augur occurs in the other wooded districts, the two meeting in the open plains.
Those species listed in the centralis-group and which are apparently restricted to the one quadrant, seem to show a tendency to definite regional distribution within that quadrant. The majority described and undescribed may be northern flies, but centralis seems to be typical of the open forest and falciformis of the rain forests, both occurring in the southern section of the quadrant.
PHYLOGENY.
Patton gives some phylogenetic ideas on the development of the terminalia, which seem to be quite sound in principle but reversed in direction of presumed development. Taking into account characters other than terminalia, it would seem that Adichosia nigrithorax would be the most primitive Calliphora extant, for it has hairy dichoptic eyes. The other species in the subgenus, also with hairy eyes, has the holoptic form; this also is the form towards which the other two subgenera trend. It seems to me probable that the terminalia of Adichosia may also be of the primitive type and should be placed at the base of the Calliphorine stem.
Patton, however, believes that the form of terminalia found on augur (Proekon) is the primitive one, and if this be the case we would have the curious incident of a primitive group being the one most abundant in species and the most advanced forms in the numerical minority. Also, the advanced form would have a restricted distribution, the primitive form a wide one.
Making the necessary adjustment, and accepting Patton’s main theme, 2 diagram of phylogeny may be built up, as shown in the adjacent arrangement. I offer this diagram as a tentative one, but from data I have gathered by the study of other genera of the Calliphoridae, I think the general trend of the subject will be maintained. It may be shown that the ovipositor was originally long, and the strut developed from an independent thin support to become thickened and fused with other parts of the aedeagus later, the form taken in canimicans being an intermediate stage.
H
26
NOTES ON GENUS CALLIPHORA.
rufipes-group tibialis-group species emspecrcs
sternalis-group 2 species
cenimicans-group centrajis-
a /spleicile's group augur= 2) spiecile's group
stygia-group 3 species fuscofemorata- group
ochracea-group 2 species
Diagram of Phylogeny.
Patton places the sternalis-group as associated with the canimicans-group for
a reason unknown to me.
i)
Key to the Phylogenetical Considerations. Eyes hairy, primitively dichoptic at least in part. Strut free and slender. Ovipositor
Ios ak = Relate RENEE ES e CAREER nen NE ARC | oat RUM aries en Nr eee JeRents Men is ran NS SPM a a ochracea-group Eyes bare, the dichoptic nature strongly tends to disappear ................. 2 Strut still free and slender and the ovipositor long .................. stygia-group
Strut bound to other parts of aedeagus by membrane throughout its length. Ovi- positor probably short in all cases or perhaps in some strongly tending that
WY ss ere ie ye luciseh auserscbistew oh outs strata c yeiel rolseutelas he-s:-a. ecuaybiatetreuces ieeia roimetss Utes he Weicouree suDI aoc terete cuanto some cee c etme 3 Struestillvislenderinnsscete see seo a oie canimicans-group; fuscofemorata-group StLUty DGOAGeNEA ys sh ase eeu ence el ere a oe eke EE RAdS CoP, Opera tad eis eecyote GALGkS, 6 4 Strut normally broadened but curved at least at its apex; other characters of
terminaliaynormalomneceneralmtoOrimn ian tie cline nie ck noi nie ea ane 5
Strut abnormally broad and straight, only reduced at apex to a point not showing a marked trend forwards. Other parts of terminalia showing abnormal develop- ment at least in part, especially so in the development of secondary plates sags Pie OAR pees eee his eR a Oe te ee) Ay EL LN ae = Se ety See sternalis-group
INfia A (Hees MCE! Wa lOEROhIN Gost odoabookocooogaduopoedousoudouoop rufipes-group
Ninth tergite elongate relative to its breadth being markedly longer than broad PAE gh perry MECC ELE POO V RRC IR AT RANE EOE HOR CER ERT ORI Un RS a aes onan RA aaa tibialis-group
It will be noted that I use the name fuscofemorata for a group and place it in
the above key and diagram. I do not expect the name to remain permanently, for the subgenus Proekon is not yet well understood. The centralis-group and the augur-group fall into alignment with the rufipes-group and there are none known to me within the subgenus Proekon that are comparable with the tibialis-group and the sternalis-group.
The subgenus Onesia stands in relation to Neopollenia very much as Proekon
does, only it has more numerous species, some of which, like fuscofemorata, fall into alignment with the canimicans-group and some with the ruficeps-group. The intro- duced erythrocephala-group is in alignment with the stygia-group.
References. PATTON.—Amnn. Trop. Med. and Parasit., Liverpool, xxix, 1955, 19-32. Harpy.—Bull. Ent. Res. London, xxi, 1930, 441-8; and xxiii, 1932, 549-558. MALLOCH.—Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., lii, 1927, 299-335; lili, 1928, 598-617; and Ivii,
1932, 64-8.
A CENSUS OF THE ORCHIDS OF NEW SOUTH WALHKS, 1937. By the Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A.
[Read 28th April, 1937.]
The Census of New South Wales Plants, by J. H. Maiden and Ernest Betche (1916), recorded 177 species of Orchids—an increase of only four since the publica- tion of Moore and Betche’s ‘‘Handbook of the Flora of N.S.W.” in 1893. Recent research has indicated that of these 177, at least four should be deleted from the list. Mr. W. H. Nicholls has demonstrated (Vict. Nat., June, 1936) that no authentic Australian specimens of Thelymitra longifolia Forst. can be discovered, and it seems that this species is restricted to New Zealand. Mr. Nicholls has also shown (Vict. Nat., June, 1934) that Fitzgerald’s 7. megcalyptra is really conspecific with Lindley’s T. aristata. Fitzgerald’s Pterostylis striata is now generally admitted to be P. alata Reichb. f.; and the present writer is convinced that P. cucullata R.Br. has not yet been recorded in New South Wales. Brown’s name has been mistakenly bestowed upon a very different species, P. falcata Rogers. Some doubt exists in regard to a number of other species. No one has seen Diuris dendrobioides Fitzg., or Pterostylis clavigera Fitzg., for over forty years, and as no specimens are available, their validity cannot be tested. Several of ihe same author’s Prasophyllum species are also quite unknown to the present * generation, as also is his Anticheirostylis apostasioides. But of course these may yet be re-discovered, and they should therefore be retained on the list. The possibility of re-discovery is indicated in the fact that since Maiden and Betche’s Census was published 45 species and one new genus have been added to the Orchid flora of the State.
Alterations in nomenclature, due either to the application of the international priority rule, the transference of species, or the deletion of genera, have become necessary since the 1916 Census. Two of these—Dendrobium elongatum Cunn., instead of D. gracilicaule F.v.M., and Bulbophyllum crassulaefolium Cunn., instead of B. Shepherdii F.v.M., are here published for the first time, on the authority of Dr. R. S. Rogers of Adelaide. In both instances Cunningham’s description preceded Mueller’s by many years. Dr. Rogers thinks Mueller may have suppressed D. elongatum to avoid confusion with a non-Australian plant of Lindley’s; but the latter’s D. elongatum is merely a synonym for his D. cymbidioides, and has no standing. With regard to Bulbophyllum crassulaefolium, Dr. Rogers writes: “Cunningham did not see the plant in flower, and apparently thought it might prove to be a Dendrobium. His coloured drawing of it is preserved at Kew Gardens; the habit of the plant agrees perfectly with Mueller’s B. Shepherdii, and the locality (Blue Mountains) is identical.” This little Bulbophyllum is very common in many parts of the State.
Deleting the four species cited above from Maiden and Betche’s Census, and adding 45 to the remaining 173, we now have 218 Orchids on record for this State. In the Census list below I have only given references to descriptions, ete., in the
28 CENSUS OF ORCHIDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES, 1937,
case of those which are not listed in the 1916 Census. In all other cases Maiden
and Betche’s work should be consulted.
I have used the following abbreviations:
Fragm.—Mueller’s Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae. Q. Fl.—_F. M. Bailey’s Queensland Flora (1902).
S.A. Orch.—Dr. R. S. Rogers’ South Australian Orchids. Orch. N.S.W.—Rupp’s Guide to the Orchids of N.S.W. Bot. Reg—Curtis’s Botanical Register (London).
* Denotes plants recorded since the 1916 Census.
7 Denotes an alteration in nomenclature.
LIPARIS Rich. reflexa Lindl. coelogynoides F.v.M. *habenarina F.v.M., Fragm., iv, 131. See Vict. Nat., May, 19385. *Simmondsii Bail., Q. Fl., p. 1521, also Botany Bulletin, Q’land. Dept. of Agriculture, xix, 1917, p. 12 (J. F. Bailey and C. T. White); see also Aust. Orch. Review, March, 1937. OBERONIA Lindl. iridifolia Lindl. Titania Lindl. DENDROBIUM Swz. speciosum Sm. var. Hillii F.v.M. *var. gracillimum Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soe N.S.W., liv, 5, 1929. *Kesteventt Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc N.S.W., lvi, 2, 1931; Q. Nat., March, 1935. falcorostrum Fitzg. tetragonum Cunn. aemulum R.Br. Kingianum Bidw. *var. Silcockii Bail., Q. Fl., p. 1528. yelongatum Cunn., Bot. Reg., 1839. (D. gracilicaule F.v.M., see above.) monophyllum F.v.M. *Schneiderae Bail., Q. Fl., p. 1531. cucumerinum Macleay. pugioniforme Cunn. linguiforme Swz. teretifoliwm R.Br. See Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ix, 3-4, 1935. var. Fairfaxii Fitzg. and F.v.M. striolatum Reichb. f. Beckleri F.v.M. *tenwissimum Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lii, 4, 1927. Mortii F.v.M. BULBOPHYLLUM Thou. rerassulaefolium Cunn., Bot. Reg.. 1839, Misc., p. 33. (B. Shepherdii F.v.M. See above.) tbracteatum Bail. (Adelopetalum brac- teatum Fitzg. See Q. FIl., p. 1539. It is generally recognized now that Bailey’s treatment of this Orchid is correct.) aurantiacum F.v.M. exiguum F.yv.M. minutissimum F.v.M.
Elisae F.v.M.
*Weinthalii Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., lvii, 1933.
TAENIOPHYLLUM Blume.
Muelleri Lindl.
SARCOCHILUS R.Br.
divitifiorus F.v.M.
falcatus R.Br. var. montanus Fitze.
*Weinthalii Bail., Q’land Agricultural Journal, xiii (1903), 346, and xxviii, Part 6 (June, 1912), 448.
*Hartmanni F.v.M. Fragm., viii, 248. See Abstract Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., No. 482, Aug., 1935.
Fitegeraldii F.v.M.
olivaceus Lindl.
*spathulatus Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Austr., li, 1927.
*dilatatus F.v.M., Fragm., i, 191. See also Rogers, loc. cit.
parvifiorus Lindl.
Ceciliae F.v.M.
Hillii F.v.M.
eriochilus Fitzg.
CLEISOSTOMA Blume. tridentatum Lindl. Beckleri F.v.M.
ORNITHOCHILUS Wall. Hillii Benth.
GEODORUM Jacks. pictum Lindl.
Dipop1uM R.Br. punctatum R.Br. *Hamiltonianum (Bail.) Cheel, Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lvii, 1-2, 1923. CYMBIDIUM Swz. canaliculatum R.Br. *forma aureolum Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lix, 1-2, 1934. *jiridifolium Cunn., Bot. Reg., 1839, Mise. 34. (C. albuciflorum F.v.M. See Rupp, loc. cit.) suave R.Br. PHAtus Lour. grandifolius Lour. (Now almost extinct in N.S.W.) CALANTHE R.Br. veratrifolia R.Br. GALEOLA Lour. cassythoides Reichb. f. Ledgeriana ¥F.v.M.
BY H. M. R. RUPP. 29
EXprpocguM Gmel. nutans Lindl. GASTRODIA R.Br. sesamoides R.Br. *CRYPTANTHEMIS Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lvii, 1-2, 1932. *Slateri Rupp, loc. cit. and lix, 3-4, 1934. CHEIROSTYLIS Blume. grandiflora Blume. SPIRANTHES Rich. sinensis (Pers.) Ames. Lindl. ) CALOCHILUS R.Br. campestris R.Br. (Doubt has been expressed in regard to this species. It is certain that in N.S.W. it was long confused with the species now known as C. cupreus Rogers. But Brown recorded it both in N.S.W. and Queensland. I believe it is much less common than was formerly supposed: but I have collected it near Bullahdelah, and have seen specimens from various districts. ) *grandifiorus Rupp, Vict. Nat., Feb., 1934, and Abstract, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Aug., 1935. *cupreus Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlii, 1918. Robertsoni Benth. paludosus R.Br.
THELYMITRA Forst.
ixioides Swz.
media R.Br.
circumsepta Fitzg.
aristata Lindl. (For the inclusion of Fitzg.’s TT. megcalyptra in this species see Nicholls, Vict. Nat., Oct., 19384, and for the association of T. aristata and Dendrobium Kingianum, see Rupp, Vict. Nat., Nov., 1934.)
*paucifiora, R.Br., Prodromus, p. 314.
nuda R.Br.
*chasmogama Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., li, 1927. See also Proce. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ix, 3-4, 1935.
carnea R.Br.
Hlizabethae F.v.M. See Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. 8S. Austr., li, 1927.
venosa R.Br.
DiurRis Sm.
alba R.Br.
jpunctata Sm. (D. elongata R.Br.)
cuneata Fitzg.
spathulata Fitze.
*venosa Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., li, 3, 1926, and liii, 4, 1928.
dendrobioides Fitzg.
secundiflora Fitzeg.
tricolor Fitzg.
Sheaffiana Fitze.
maculata Sm.
(S. australis
aequalis F.v.M.
bracteata Fitzg.
platichilus Fitzg.
aurea Sm.
*palachila Rogers, S. Austr. Orchids, 1s Bs
*brevifolia Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlvi, 1922.
sulphurea R.Br.
abbreviata F.v.M.
pedunculata R.Br.
pallens Benth.
ORTHOCERAS R.Br.
strictum R.Br.
CRYPTOSTYLIS R.Br.
ysubulata Reichb. f. (C. R.Br.)
erecta R.Br.
leptochila F.v.M.
longifolia
PRASOPHYLLUM R.Br.
australe R.Br .
flavum R.Br.
elatum R.Br.
brevilabre Hook.
patens R.Br.
*Rogersii Rupp, Proc. N.S.W., liii, 4, 1928.
*odoratum Rogers, S. p. 15.
*gracile Rogers, loc. cit., p. 14.
*Frenchii F.v.M. See Pescott, Orchids of Victoria, p. 31.
*Suttonii Rogers and Rees. See Vict. Nat., July, 1933; but the Barring- ton Tops record there given is a mistake.
fuscum R.Br. (Mr. W. H. Nicholls has recently reviewed this species and found it to include more than one. But his treatment of the group has not yet been applied to the N.S.W. forms. Maiden and Betche recognized vars. alpinum and grandiflorum, but for the present it may be better to include all forms under the specific name.)
striatum R.Br.
Baueri Poir.
Deaneanum Fitze.
longisepalum Fitze. ae |
nigricans R.Br. Ee:
transversum Fitze.
ansatum Fitzg.
laminatum Fitze.
rufum R.Br.
densum Fitzg.
viride Fitze.
filiforme Fitzg.
yArcheri Hook. (P. intricatum Stuart. See Nicholls, Vict. Nat., Oct., 1931.)
*Morrisii Nicholls, loc. cit.
*Hopsonii Rupp, Proc. N.S.W., lili, 4, 1928.
Woollsii F.v.M.
LINN. Soc.
Austr. Orch.,
és
LINN. Soc.
30 CENSUS OF ORCHIDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES, 1937,
reflexrum Fitzeg. eriochilum Fitzg. fimbriatum R.Br. *acuminatum Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., li, 1927. See also Orch. INES Wise Ds Ore *Ruppii Rogers, loc. cit.; also Orch. N.S.W., p. 88. *Nublingii Rogers, loc. cit.; also Orch. ISSN Wiles dh SB ANTICHEIROSTYLIS Fitzeg. apostasioides Fitzg. Microtis R.Br. *magnadenia Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., liv, 1930. porrifolia Spreng. parviflora R.Br. *oblonga Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Austr., xvii, 1923. CORYSANTHES R.Br. pruinosa Cunn. fimbriata R.Br. *diemenica Lindl. (See Proc. LINN. S@Gh INESEW%5 ith, 924, LOPS. jo, Sls) undulata Cunn. (See Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., li, 1927, also refer to Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., loc. cit., p. 88.) bicalcarata R.Br. unguiculata R.Br.
PTEROSTYLIS R.Br.
ophioglossa R.Br.
*var. collina Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc: IN.SW., liv, 5, 1929. concinna R.Br.
acuminata R.Br.
Baptistii Fitzg.
curta R.Br.
nutans R.Br. var. hispidula Fitzg.
clavigera Fitzg.
nana R.Br.
pedoglossa Fitzg.
pedunculata R.Br.
*furcillata Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lv, 4, 1930.
*furcata Lindl. (See Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict., xxviii [new series], aig)
*alpina Rogers, loc. cit.
*faleata Rogers, loc. cit.
*pulchella Messmer, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., lviii, 5-6, 1933.
grandifiora R.Br.
truncata Fitzg.
reflera R.Br.
*revoluta R.Br. (See Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lili, 5, 1928, p. 553.)
coccinea Fitzg.
yalata Reichb. f. (P. praecogx Lindl., P. striata Fitzg.)
obtusa R.Br.
parviflora R.Br. (Maiden and Betche record var. aphylla Ewart and
White. P. parviflora is so variable a species, and, in N.S.W. at least, the appearance of leaves is often so much later than the flowers, that the validity of var. aphylla seems doubtful in this State.) mutica R.Br. cycnocephala Fitze. rufa R.Br. (The group of which this species is representative calls for review, as there is considerable confusion of forms.) *nusilla Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlii, 1918. *var. prominens Rupp., Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lvi, 2, 1931. jMitchellii Lindl. (P. rufa var. Mit- chellit. ) Tsquamata R.Br. (2. rufa var. squamata. ) Woollsii Fitze. Daintreyana F.v.M. longifolia R.Br. barbata Lindl. CALEANA R.Br. major R.Br. minor R.Br. *Nublingti Nicholls, Vict. Nat., May, UW) Bile *SPICULABA Lindl. (Dirakaea Lindl.) irritabilis Reichb. f. Huntiana F.v.M. ACIANTHUS R.Br. caudatus R.Br. fornicatus R.Br. exsertus R.Br. freniformis R.Br. (Cyrtostylis reni- formis R.Br.) ERIocHILuS R.Br. yeucullatus Reichb. f. (H. autumnalis R.Br.) LYPERANTHUS R.Br. ellipticus R.Br. suaveolens R.Br. nigricans R.Br.
*BURNETTIA Lindl. (Lyperanthus, partly.) ycuneata Lindl. (L. Burnettii F.v.M.) CHILOGLOTTIS R.Br. jreflera (Lab.) Cheel. R.Br.) trapeziformis Fitzg. formicifera Fitzg. trilabra Fitzg. Gunnii Lindl. ADENOCHILUS Hook. Nortonu Fitzg. CALADENIA R.Br. filamentosa R.Br. Patersonii R.Br. dilatata R.Br. *var. concinna Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S:W.., lili, 5, 1928. arenaria Fitzg. concolor Fitzg.
(C. diphylla
BY
clavigera Cunn.
tesselata Fitzg.
*angustata Lindl. (See Rupp, LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lvi, 5, 1931.)
*alpina Rogers, Trans. Austr, li, 1927.
cucullata Fitzg.
testacea R.Br.
carnea R.Br.
*var. gigantea Rogers, Trans. Roy.
SoG Se Austin Lis 1920.
Proc.
Roy. Soc. 8.
M. BR. RUPP.
alba R.Br. latifolia R.Br. dimorpha Fitzg. congesta R.Br. *tutelata Rogers, S.A. Orch., p. 30. caerulea R.Br. deformis R.Br. GLOSSODIA R.Br. major R.Br. minor R.Br.
32
AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE. VI. DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SUBSPECIES. By G. A. WATERHOUSE, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S. [Read 28th April, 1937.]
During part of 1936 I spent some time at the British Museum of Natural History in consultation with Brigadier W. H. Evans, who has been making a study of the species of this family for the whole world. The following new races are the result of part of my investigations in England. The types are all in the Australian Museum. The next part will contain my notes on the Australian types and their localities.
TRAPEZITES PHIGALIA Hewitson.
Hesperia phigalia Hew., 1868, Descriptions of 100 new species of Hesperidae, p. 32. Hewitson described this species from his own’ collection, giving as locality simply “Australia”. Kirby’s List of the Hewitson Collection mentions two specimens, but I was only able to find one, which was labelled by F. A. Heron, Hesperilla phigalia No. 2. This was a female and has been considered the holo- type. It does not quite conform to the description, as it has a very small spot in area la immediately below the large spot in 2, on the upperside of the forewing, also the underside of the hindwing is not grey, but yellowish-brown. The size given by Hewitson is slightly smaller than for his 7. eliena and slightly larger than for his 7. petalia, both described on the same page as 7. phigalia. This suggests that Hewitson was describing a male. I find it difficult to assign a type locality for the specimen in the British Museum as the underside of this specimen does not agree with any of the long series I have from South Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. As there is evidence that Hewitson did not obtain any of his material from New South Wales or Victoria, and the description does not apply to the South Queensland race, I can only assign the type locality as near Adelaide. There was a Hewitson specimen of TJ. petalia which bore a label Hesperilla phigalia No. 1. The holotype of 7. petalia is labelled No. 2, Kirby listing two specimens of this species in the Hewitson collection, both of which I found.
TRAPEZITES PHIGALIA PHILA, N. subsp.
The chief difference in this race is the decidedly pink tint on the apex of the forewing and the hindwing on the underside. In addition, the broad orange band on the upperside of the hindwing is divided by darker veins, in both sexes. These characters are only found in specimens from South Queensland. The holotype male from Stradbroke Is., caught in September, has the ring spots on the under- side of the hindwing more indistinct than three other males from the same locality. There are also one male and two females from Noosa, Qld., also caught in September, but the pink on the underside is not quite so marked as in the Stradbroke specimens. They are, however, not grey as in specimens from southern localities.
[ou eo
BY G. A. WATERHOUSE.
MorTaSINGHA ATRALBA Tepper.
Hesperilla atralba Tepper, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., iv, 1880-1, p. 33, Pl. 2, fig. 5. The holotype is a female in the South Australian Museum from Ardrossan, Yorke’s Peninsula, S. Aust., and now consists of two wings only. The male of the typical race has an inconspicuous stigma, very different from the broad stigma in males of the Western Australian races. Brigadier Evans has examined the genitalia, but so far finds nothing to warrant separating the races as distinct species. The race atralba has the spots whiter than the other races. It has two broods, but most specimens have been caught in April. I have examined the series of dactyliota Meyrick, 1888, in his collection. They consisted of two males and a female from Geraldton, W.A., and a female from Port Lineoln, S. Aust.; the latter belongs to typical atralba. Mr. Meyrick has presented one of his males to the Australian Museum, and it is now before me. They are smaller than typical atralba and, now I have seen this series, I find that those specimens from further south in Western Australia, to which I applied the name dactyliota, are distinct races. The race nila Waterhouse, 1932, from Dirk Hartog Is., W.A., in August, is the same size as dactyliota, the spots on the forewing above are slightly smaller and the hindwing beneath is yellowish-brown, unlike any of the other races.
MOoTASINGHA ATRALBA ANACES, Nn. Subsp.
M. atralba dactyliota, Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914, p. 196, figs. 648, 773; Waterhouse, 1932, “What Butterfly is That?”, p. 234, Pl. xxx, fig. 18.
This is the largest race yet known; on the upperside the spots on the fore- wing in the male are proportionately smaller and there is rarely a spot in 2; the blotches on the hindwing are more extensive and greenish-grey. On the under- side the apex of the forewing and the hindwing have a pinkish tint and there are usually two spots in 1a on the forewing; the spots on the hindwing are less defined than in the other Western Australian races. In the female the spots on the upperside are nearly as large as in the typical race.
Described from four males and one female from Hamel (R. Illidge) and five males from Waroona (G. F. Berthoud), all caught from 15th to 30th Oct., 1913. These localities are close together and somewhat south of Perth, W.A.
MovTASINGHA ATRALBA ANAPUS, nN. Subsp.
This race is the same size as dactyliota and nila. On the upperside the spots of the forewing are smaller than in dactyliota and that in 3 is round, those in 4 and 5 small and placed directly under one another. On the underside the apex of forewing is grey and in la there is an additional spot, the hindwing is grey and the spots are much more distinct than those of anaces. The holotype is a male from Stirling Ranges, W.A., caught in October with three other males in poor condition. One of these has the spots in 4 and 5 of the forewing much larger than in any male I have seen from Western Australia.
SUNIANA LASCIVIA LASUS, nN. subsp.
This is a very small northern race, the forewing in the male being less than 9 mm. and in the female less than 10 mm. The markings above are bright orange and well defined, especially that along the lower margin and end of cell, the band of the hindwing is proportionately broader than in lascivia from the south. On the underside of the forewing, the cell is broadly orange, the three subapical spots and the discal band are well marked, as is also the band on the hindwing. This race is easily distinguished from typical lascivia from New South Wales and
I
34 AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE, VI.
Victoria by its size and more prominent markings. It approaches nearer to the race neocles Mabille, 1891, of which the type is said to come from Cooktown. Described from two males and one female from Bathurst Is., N.T., in October.
SUNIANA SUNIAS SAUDA, nN. subsp.
This race from Port Darwin differs from the other Australian races in being paler yellow both above and below.
TELICOTA EUROTAS Felder.
Pamphila eurotas Felder, Site. Akad. Wiss. Math.-Nat. Wien, x1, 1860, 462.
This species differs from the others in the genus in having the uncus undivided. The race in northern New South Wales is eurychlora Lower, 1908. Mr. F. H. Taylor has sent me specimens from the Cairns District, so this added material shows that North Queensland specimens form a distinct race. The Australian Museum has specimens from Aru, which have dark orange markings on the upper- side and the markings on the underside usually more defined than in the Australian races.
TELICOTA EUROTAS LACONIA, nN. Subsp.
In the male, this race differs from eurychlora in having the orange markings above darker. On the forewing the three subapical elongate spots are not so definitely connected with the costal streak; the spots in 4 and 5 are smaller and the discal band from la to 4 narrower and with straighter edges,