aASsiaAl aL 666
Paiales CS9w 1914
THE COMMON SNAKES
OF
INDIA ano BURMA
AND HOW TO
RECOGNISE THEM
EE GRe LY 24. ue. ad. pri. MAJOR, LMS. . ; , | ) |
p INTERNATIONAL BOOK DISTRIBUTORS
9/3, RAJPUR ROAD, (ist, FLOOR). DEHRADUN-248001 INDIA
Cornell University
Library
The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924075180137
CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
MTU THE COMMON SNAKES
OF
INDIA ano BURMA
AND HOW TO
RECOGNISE THEM
BY
W. H. CAZALY, B.A., M.B. BS., D.P.H, MAJOR, LMS.
INTERNATIONAL BOOK DISTRIBUTORS
Dp 9/3, RAJPUR ROAD, (1st, FLOOR). DEHRADUN-248001 INDIA
REFRINTED — 1984
Published by 8. P. SINGH For
INTERNATIONAL BOOK DISTRIBUTORS 93, Rajpur Road, Dehra Dun-India,
THE COMMON SNAKES
OF
INDIA ano BURMA
AND HOW TO
RECOGNISE THEM
BY
W. H. CAZALY, Ba., mB, Bs., D.P.H, MAJOR, L.M.S.
ALLAHABAD THE PIONEER PRESS
1914
Page 8, line 17, for specimené*read
” 14, ” 7, ‘ ” 24,
” 26, ” 12,
” 39, ” 8,
” 40, we 31,
” 46, a9 18,
” 54, a” 10, In diagram, Fig.
10,
ERRATA.
pots read sppts. 4 in fogt-note, for muc Faciolatus read Fasciol Branded regd,Banded. Hamadrayad read’ Maniadryad.
common viper read ¢ontmon Green viper. FPaciolatus read Fasciolatus.
in note for 49 read 4.
lo read mucosus. us,
PREFACE.
AN explanation and even an apology would seem to be required for this little book. The latter especially, since I have not any very extensive or scientific knowledge of snakes and nearly all my information has been derived from other books. I have made no new discoveries ; all that is original is the arrangement of the facts.
So much for the apology. The explanation and justification lie in the fact, that I think most people, when a snake is killed, like to be able to tell what sort it is; or at any rate whether it is poisonous or not.
I had this desire so strongly when I first came to India that I bought Dr. Nicholson’s book on ‘Indian Snakes, ” and later on welcomed the publication of Major Wall’s book on ‘“ Poisonous Indian Snakes,”
From these books I have found it possible to identify all the snakes I have come across. But Wall’s book deals only with poisonous snakes and Nicholson is so comprehensive that it takes a lot of time and hard work for the ordinary man to find what he wants.
I gradually simplified matters for myself by making notes, classifying, separating rare snakes and “ solitary museum specimens” from the common ones, and so on, until the present little work is the result.
In it I have endeavoured to use only simple language and English names as far as possible ; and I have dealt only with the commoner snakes found in India and Burma, snakes such as the ordinary dweller in cantonments or district ofhcer is likely to come across. There are numerous others, but so far T have only come across one that is not mentioned in this book, so I infer that the rarer snakes are not often met and need not trouble the ordinary person, who should be able to identify easily any snake he comes across and, even more easily, to tell a poisonous from a non-poisonous one by means of this book.
The scientific names are taken from Mr. Boulenger’s Catalogue of British Museum Snakes: the English names are from Dr. Nicholson’s book or are names in Major Wall’s writings.
It is curious, by the way, that although the term “Grass Snake” is frequently heard, I bave been unable to find out to what particular snake (if any) it refers.
I have always found that coloured pictures of snakes were practically useless in identifying specimens, so I do not regret their absence in this little book.
ii I freely acknowledge my indebtedness to the books of Dr. Nicholson and
Major Wall, and advise anyone who wishes to pursue the subject a little
further to get them, especially the latter. I have also consulted Mr. Boulenger’s Catalogue of Snakes in the
‘British Museum, and am indebted to Captain H. W. Acton, LMS., for
many useful hints. My thanks are due to Captain D. G. Cooper, I.M.S., for drawing the
diagrams.
CONTENTS.
Preface ee oe oé te CHAPTER I,
‘The snake’s place in nature .. A ee CHAPTER II,
Description of the typical snake ae a
CHAPTER III. Variations from the typical snake as just described CHAPTER IV. ‘The four groups of snakes... ae _
CHAPTER V.
Full description of the common snakes ..
CHAPTER VI.
How to distinguish between poisonous and non-poisonous snakes .,
CHAPTER VII.
How to “ spot” a common snake ue
CHAPTER VIII.
Some general remarks about snakes oi
APPENDIX.
New and old nomenclature of the head shields
Inpex oe oe oe oe
10
47
50
i—iv
CHAPTER I. THE SNAKE'S PLACE IN NATURE,
In order to recognise any given snake it is not sufficient to say ‘This is a ground snake or a rat snake, etc.” Such a statement conveys little or no information. We must first realise the snake’s relation to other living things and then the various snakes’ relations to one another. This we do by a process of classification.
As everyone knows, living things are divided into two kingdoms—the animal kingdom and the vegetable kingdom.
The animal kingdom is again divided into two sub- kingdoms, vzz., animals with back-bones (the vertebrates) and animals without back-bones (the invertebrates). The latter sub-kingdom we need not mention further, It contains the insects, crabs and lobsters, jelly-fish, microbes, and so on.
The back-boned animals or vertebrates are divided into three sections, viz., the fish-like animals, the lizard-like ani- mals and the mammals. The first section contains two classes, viz,, the fishes and the amphibians (things like frogs, etc).* The third section we are all familiar with because it contains ourselves, dogs, horses and in fact all animals which have their young born alive and suckle them.
The second section chiefly concerns us at present. It has two classes, viz., the reptiles and the birds. Look at a bird’s eyes and scaly legs and you will understand how it comes to be classed with the lizard-like animals.
The reptile class is divided into four orders: one of which is the order snakes. The other three are the tortoises, the lizards and the crocodiles.
'* These animals spend the first part of their lives in the water and then are just like fisheg,
2
So now we have an idea of the relation of snakes to other living creatures.
To present this clearly we may make use of a table of the sub-kingdom vertebrates as follows :—
Section, Class. Order. Fish-like animals Fishes. (Ichthyopsida). Amphibians.
Tortoises. : SNAKES. : . ; Reptiles Lizards Lizard-like animals Grove diles (Sauropsida). , Birds,
Mammals (Mammalia) Mammals.
The order snakes, like all other orders, is divided up into families ; each of these families is divided up into genera and finally each genus is divided into species. The scientific name of any animal, or plant for that matter, is the name of its genus followed by that of its species.
However, in this little book we shall not go into the matter of dividing up the order snakes into families. The subject is rather a difficult one and involves the use of a lot of long names and the classification is not of much use to the ordinary reader as it is based almost entirely on obscure differences in the bones of the head.
Soall I have done is to divide up the snakes into four easily distinguished groups (vide Chapter IV) according to the idea suggested by Major Wall in his book.
Wherever possible I have given each snake its English
name and have appended the scientific name as well, to make reference to other ,books easy.
CHAPTER II. DESCRIPTION OF A TYPICAL SNAKE,
Let us now take an ordinary, common snake, such as & cobra or dhaman and thoroughly examine it.
3
We will not trouble about its inside except to note that the skeleton consists of a skull, back-bone and ribs. The latter are interesting as it is by means of their movements that the snake progresses along the ground. In the cobra the ribs of the neck are long and lie in a line with the body, but they can be stretched out at right angles, thus forming the well known hood. A. few other snakes possess this charac- teristic, but not in such a marked degree as does the cobra.
If we consider the skiu of a mammal, we shall notice. that it grows fur or hair. A bird’s skin is clothed in feathers. Similarly a snake's skin is covered with scales.
We must study these scales carefully as they are the chief means by which we shall recognise the snake.
First examine the head. Here the scales are quite different to those on the rest of the body. They are large, regular and of definite shape and are called shields.—(Figs, 1, 2 and 3.)
These shields all have names, rather long names some of them, but it will be as well to master them.
We will consider them in four groups : (a) on the crown (Fig. 1), (6) on the upper lips (Fig. 2), (c) between the crown and the lips, z.e., the face (Fig. 2) and (d) on the lower jaw (Fig. 3).
In the middle of the crown (Fig. 1) is a single shield called . the frontal. In front of this is a pair of shields named the pre-frontals. In front of these again is another pair—the. inter-nasals and lastly, there is another single shield called. the rostral which forms the muzzle of the snake. .-It has a little notch in it to enable the tongue to be protruded without the mouth being opened. Behind the frontal shield there is a pair known as the parietals.
Looking at the side of the head or face (Fig. 2) -we shall at once notice the nostril and the eye with shields grouped about them.
4
In front is the nasal shield, sometimes single with the nostril piercing it, but generally double, with the nostril be- tween the two. Surrounding the eye, we have the supra- ocular shield above it, the pra-ocular in front and the post- ocular behind it. Sometimes there is a sub-ocular beneath it but not often. These shields are often double or triple.
Between the nasal and the pre-ocular are generally one or more shields called the loreal. But the loreal is absent in many kinds, e.g, the cobra and the krait.
Behind the post-oculars are a few more shields called temporals.
Forming the upper lip of the snake (Fig. 2) are a series of shields called the supra-labials. They vary in number from four or five to about nine. One or more enter the orbit when there is no sub-ocular. [n the diagram there are seven supra-labials and Nos. 3 and 4 enter the orbit.*
Now looking at the under part of the head, ie. the lower jaw (Fig. 3); in front we notice a single shield correspond- ing to the rostral. This is called the mental. From this the infra-labials run back on either side forming the lower lips of the snake.
Between the two series of infra-labials are two pairs of shields known as the anterior and posterior sublinguals or chin shields respectively.
Note that in counting the infra-labials the last shield which touches the posterior sublingual is the Jast infra-labial. In the diagram there are seven infra-labials.
Thie completes the norma] head shielding and with the help of the diagrams it should not be difficult to understand,
Now turn the snake over on to its back and look at its belly (Figs. 4 and 5). Here we shall see shields of a different sort. ‘They are broad, transverse plates extending right across
..* Jn tue descriptions of snakes which follow the number of supra-labials is
uiten nud those which enter the orbit are added in brackets, eg., Supra-labials 7 ry » 4 ” ’
5
the belly so that when we have the specimen fairly on its back we can only just see part of the last row of the other scales (Fig. 4). These shields are called ventrals and they extend from the posterior sublingual shield of the head all along the body to the anus or vent. Beyond this we are dealing with the snake’s tail and the ventrals are now called sub-caudals (Fig. 5).
The last ventral shield is called the anal shield (Fig. 5). It is generally double and so are the sub-caudals. The latter are divided down the centre by a zigzag line.
The number of ventrals and sub-caudals, though very variable within limits, is most important ; for it is one of the ways in which we differentiate snakes.
Lastly, we will put the snake on its belly again (Fig. 6) and see that the rest of its body is covered with small scales.
These scales are arranged in regular rows, varying in most snakes from about 13 to 25 longitudinal rows. The scales are generally all of the same size. It is most import- ant to ascertain the number of rows of scales that a snake has, and we do this by counting the rows transversely.
The most convenient way to do this is to start at the extremity of a certain ventral and follow the line of scales right over the body to the extremity of another ventral. Notice that the row does not go over exactly at right angles to the body but slants considerably (Fig. 6).
The rows should be counted at a distance from the head equal to about a quarter of the length of the body.
The number of rows is practically always odd, so that there isa single row down the middle of the back called the vertebral row (Fig. 6). (Don’t confuse this with the ventral shields.)
Besides the number of rows there are two or three other points to be noticed about the scales, First, are they all of
6
the same size? They generally are, but some snakes have the vertebral row enlarged (Fig. 7), notably the krait ; and, secondly, notice whether the scales are smooth or whether there is a raised keel along the centre of each scale.
We may also notice whether the scales merely touch one another or whether they more or less overlap, when they are said to be imbricate.
Now a few words about the shape or form of snakes generally.
The head may be narrow and elongated or broad and stumpy, Moreover it may be quite distinct from the rest of the body, being separated by a sort of neck ; or there may be no neck so that the head is not distinct.
Some snakes have elongated, slender bodies, others stout heavy ones.
And in some the tail is short and stumpy, in others very long, or tapering away into a fine, minute point.
The size of the eye varies too. Some snakes have large eyes, others small and others again moderately sized ones, The coloured part of the eye or iris varies; in some it is black, in others green or golden. When it is black the shape of the pupil cannot be made out but the pupil also varies ; in some being round, in‘ others a vertical or hori- zontal slit.
The nostrils are generally on the side of the face, but in the water and sea snakes they are on the crown of the head and are then said to be ‘‘ superior.”
Let us now study the teeth of snakes.
We will deal first with the teeth of harmless snakes.
There. ure altogether six rows of teeth—two rows in the lower jaw and four in the upper. These consist of a ruw of teeth on each side of the mouth in both the upper and lower jaws. These four rows may be called, for convenience, the upper and lower marginal rows, In addition to these, in
7
nearly all snakes, there isa double row of teeth along the roof of the mouth. These are the palatine teeth. They always form the longest rows.
The teeth are small and ‘sharp, very like those of a fish. They are not always of the same size; sometimes the front teeth and sometimes the back ones are longer than the others. They are always directed more or less backwards so that the snake may hold: its prey more securely.
The teeth of the poisonous snakes differ considerably from those of the harmless ones.
The upper marginal row of teeth does not exist. Its place is taken by: the poison fang.
In poisonous colubrine snakes, e.g., the cobra, the fang is more or less fixed, curving backwards and fitting into a depression in the lower lip.
In the vipers the poison fang is much longer than in the cobra. Its length however is apt to be exaggerated ; it rarely exceeds half an inch even in the largest specimens of vipers. Still, it is too long to be received into a depression in the lower lip like that of the cobra. So there is an arrangement by which, when the mouth is shut, the fang can be made to lie down along the roof of the mouth. When a viper opens its mouth to bite the long fang becomes erect, sticking out almost at right angles to the upper jaw.
The fangs both of cobras and vipers have a small canal in them through which the poison from the poison gland is injected into the wound made by the fang. In fact the fang of a large viper is very much like the needle of a hypodermic syringe, through which a doctor injects drugs under the skin. The canal in the cobra’s fang is a good deal smaller than that in the vipers but answers the same purpose.
The last point to consider is the colouring of snakes.
Many people try to rely entirely on the colour of a snake to identify it. Now although the colour is very
8
important it is often a fallacious guide so that all the other points should be considered first,
The colour resides chiefly in the scales but the skin is often coloured too and this shows up between the scales, forming what is known as the interstitial colour. The margins of the scales may be coloured differently to the scales themselves. In fact a scale may be of several different colours just like a bird’s feather may. All sorts of compli- cated patterns are thus produced—stripes, dots, ring-spots, ocelli or “eyes,” transverse and longitudinal lines and bars, etc. Hence it is very difficult to accurately describe in words or to paint a snake’s colouring. In fact coloured. pictures of snakes are, I find, of very little use in identifying an unknown snake. Still there is generally a main ground colour and some fairly definite sort of pattern so that, although it may be difficult to imagine a snake from its written description, still with the specimens before one it can | generally be recognised from its description. All the same, colour is a variable characteristic and should never be relied on alone to identify a snake.
CHAPTER IIT. VARIATIONS FROM THE TYPIOAL SNAKE AS JUST DESCRIBED.
As we saw in the last chapter the typical snake is covered with comparatively small scales on its body, shields on its head and ventrals on its belly.
But there are certain variations from this typical arrange- ment which we have to study.
Turn a typical snake over on to its back and we have seen that the ventrals are transverse plates extending right across the belly (Figs. 4 and 5). But in some snakes the ventrals are much narrower than this, So that as the snake lies on its back we can see the whole of the last row and generally several rows of the ordinary scales on each. side of
9
the ventrals (Fig. 8). These are snakes with narrow ventrals, as opposed to the typical snake which has broad ventrals.
Again some snakes have no ventrals at all. The belly and the back are covered with identical small scales.
In another group of snakes again the normal head shields are wanting and the snout and crown are covered with small scales just like the back of the snake (Fig. 9), These are snakes having scaly heads, not shielded heads, as the typical snake has. Some of these scaly-headed snakes have one or more small shields, eg., a supra-ocular or nasal; and the labials can be made out as a rule; but they can be seen at once to be quite different from the snake with a normally shielded head.
All snakes are covered with scales, but these variations in the different kinds of scales on head and belly enable us to classify snakes into four very useful groups as we shal] see in the next chapter.
CHAPTER ly, THE FOUR GROUPS OF SNAKES.
Grover I.—SNAKES WITH NO VENTRALS,
The snakes in this group may have shielded heads or scaly heads but their bellies like their backs are clothed
with scales. The snakes in this group are all harmless.
Grovp JI.—SNakEs WITH NARROW VENTRALS.
These again may have shielded or scaly heads but the belly is covered with transverse plates which do not extend completely across ; so that when the specimen lies on its back the ‘last row, and generally several rows, of scales are seen on each side of the ventrals (Fig. 8).
The snakes in this group are all harmless.
10
Group III.—-SnakEs WITH BROAD VENTRALS AND NORMALLY SHIELDED HEADS.
In these the belly is covered with transverse shields stretching right across the body so that only part of the last row of scales can be seen on either side when the creature lies on its back (Figs. 4 and 5) and the head has nor'>al shieius as described in Chapter ITT.
This group contains both harmless and poisonous snakes, so that we may divide the group into two sub-groups, viz :-—
Sub-Group A.—Harmless.
Sub-Group B.—Poisonous,
The majority of snakes fall into this group.
Group IV.—SNaKEs WITH BROAD VENTRALS AND SCALY HEADS.
The ventrals of snakes in this group are identical with those in the last but the crown of the head is covered with scales instead of the normal. shields (Fig. 9). These scales are similar to those on the back of the snake.
The snakes in this group are all poisonous.
CHAPTER V. FULL DESORIPYION OF THE COMMON SNAKES.
In this chapter every common snake is fully described. The snakes are arranged in the four groups,
The details in this chapter need not be studied very carefully. The chapter is meant chiefly for reference when identifying a particular specimen.
11
GROUP L.-- Syaxes wiTH NO VENTRALS. THE BLIND SNAKES.
There are two families, two or three genera and many gpecies of blind snakes, but there is little interest in exactly identifying them.
Therefore a general description of a blind snake is given :—
Length—Small ; from 4 inches or 5 inches to 18 inches.
Shape—Head: very similar to tail from which it is
difficult to distinguish it. The mouth is inferior with no mental groove.
Body : worm-like and slender, cylindrical and thicker behind.
Tail: very short and often ends in a minute spine. Eye: rudimentary and often invisible, being under the shields. Head shields— The head is irregularly and imperfectly ” shielded. Rostral prolonged backwards ; and on either side of it are-four labials and four largish’shields with several small ones behind.
‘The details are very difficult to make out in the small blind snakes.
Scales— About 22; they are cycloid and cover the whole body and are all the same size,
Ventrals—None. The belly is covered with scales.
Colouring—Dark. As a rule, olive-green, brown or black. Belly perhaps a little paler.
Habitat—Found in various parts of India, but not often: seen, as they are burrowing snakes, -rarely appearing above ground.
12
GROUP II.—Swakts witH NARROW VENTRALS. THE INDIAN PYTHON (Python molurus).
Length—A large, stout snake. Grows upwards of 10 feet. Its size, however, is apt to be exaggerated : probably 20 feet is the maximum.
Shape—Head : distinct from neck with a long snout.
Body: rounded and stout. Rudimentary hind limbs exist as small spurs, one each side of the vent, and are generally visible.
Tail : about one-eighth of the whole length.
Kye: moderate with erect pupil.
Head shields—The head is shielded but not quite nor- mally. The parietal shields are rudimentary and between the frontal and the pre-frontal there are some intercalated shields. The rostral and first two supra-labials are pitted.* There are about 12 supra-labials.
Scales—About 65, |
Ventrals—Very narrow, 242 to 262, anal entire, sub- caudals 60—72 divided.
Colouring—Three rows of quadrangular brown spots (one median) separated by narrow buff lines.
A brown spot formed by a buff or yellow mark occupies the head.
Habitat—India and Burma.
(The Malayan Python is also found in Burma.)
RUSSELL’S EARTH SNAKE (Eryz conicus). t
Length—Grows to 38 feet, but is generally less. Shape—Head : scarcely distinct from body. Broad snout. : The chin has-no mental groove.
* In the Malayan Python (P, reticulatus) the first four upper labisls are pitted: { The Red Sand Snake—Gongylophis conitis (N itholson), *
13
Body : a thick rounded body. Rudimentary: hind limbs may sometimes be made out in the male.
Tail: very short and tapering, often less than 14 inch long in large specimens.
Eye: small, pupil vertical, iris partly yellow, partly black.
Head shields—-Practically absent. The head is scaled except for a rostral, one or two pairs of small pre-frontals and numerous supra- and infra- labials.
Scales—41—58 : small. keeled.
Ventrals— Narrow, 168 to 186, anal is trifid, ie., it is divided into a large median and two small external portions ; sub-caudals 17—23 ; single.
Colour—Grey, with an irregular vertebral chain formed by dorsal coalescing rows of reddish brown blotches. Or, dark chocolate brown dorsally sometimes with irregular grey transverse stripes. lLaterally grey with various sized reddish brown blotches and spots. Belly white or yellowish or with reddish tinge, often with humerous small dark spots.
Habitat—Common iu Central and South India.
JOHN’S EARTH SNAKE (Eryx Johnit).*
Length—Grows to 4 feet ; tail only about one-twelfth of length.
Shape—Similar to Russell's earth snake, but the chin has a mental groove.
Head shields—Similar to Russell’s earth snake.
Scales—50—65, much less keeled than those of Russell's earth snake.
* The Block Sand Spuke (Nicholeon).
14
Ventrals— Narrow, 189 to 209, anal is trifid, 7.e., it is divid- ed into a larger median and two small external portions. Sub-caudals 19—36, single.
Colour—Dark olive brown. Generally numerous, ill- defined and indistinct black blotches or unsym- metrical cross-bars and sometimes light reddish pots laterally.
Habitat—Same as Russell’s earth snake, but it is less common.
THE IRIDESCENT EARTH SNAKE (Xenopeltis wnicolor).
Length— Upwards of 3 feet, tail one-twelfth of length,
Shape— Head : not distinct, rounded. Body : cylindrical and stout. Tail: short and tapering. Kye : small. Teeth : small but very numerous.
Head shields—Simulating scales; a large pre-ocular, no loreal; behind the triangular frontal are other similarly shaped large scales
Scales—15, large and polished. The outer row enlarged to nearly half the size of the ventrals.
Ventrals—Narrow, 166 to 198, anal bifid. Sub-caudals 20—23 bifid.
Colouring—Black or brown above with remarkable ' iridescent effects ; scales with lighter edges; below white or yellowish.
Habitat—Common in Burma.
‘THE SHORT-TAILED EARTH SNAKE OF BURMA (Cylindrophis Rufus).
Length—About 80 inches.
15
Shape —Head: small, rounded; not distinct from neck. Body: cylindrical. Rudiments of hind limbs are usually just distinguishable as a claw-like spur
each side of the vent.
Tail: extremely short, blunt with a smooth end. Eye: very small ; pupil round or vertical.
Head shields—Large, symmetrical shields present. No internasals. Nasal single. It forms a suture with its fellow behind the rostral. No loreal or pre-ocular. Upper labials 6 (3, 4).
Scales —19 or 21, smooth.
Ventrals —184 to 245, anal bifid. Sub-caudals 5—10. The ventrals are very narrow, not quite twice as large as the contiguous scales.
Colour—Brown or black above ; with or without alter- nating light cross-bands. Belly white with transverse black bands or spots ; or black with transverse white bands.
Lower surface of tail bright vermillion during life.
Habitat— Burma, where it is not uncommon.
THE ROUGH-TAILED EARTH SNAKE (Silybura ocellata).
Length—6 to 20 inches. Shape—Head : small, narrow, conical, with pointed snout. Not distinct from neck.
Body: cylindrical, rigid.
Tail: very distinctive. It is very short and truncated obliquely; slightly flattened, with strongly keeled scales on the upper surface. The terminal scale or shield ends in two small points.
Eye: very small, with round.pupil.
Teeth : few and small. No palatine teeth.
16
Head shields—The nasals are contiguous, there being no internasals. The supra- and post-oculars are confluent. No temporals. Upper labials four.
Scales—17, round and polished.
Ventrals —193 to 234. Very narrow. Sub-caudals 6—11.
Colour—Yellowish.; or brown above usually with numer- ous transverse series of small, yellow black-
edged ocelli. Belly brown with large yellow spots or cross-bands ; or yellow mottled or
blotched. , Habitat—These small burrowing snakes are fairly com-
mon in the hills of Southern India at a height from 2,000 to 4,500 feet.
RUSSELL’S WATER SNAKE (Cerberus rhynchops),
This snake is about the commonest and most typical of the river snakes. :
The river snakes live in rivers and estuaries and rarely come to land.
Length—Grows to 3 feet or more. Tail one-fifth of length.
Shape—Head : small, not very distinct from neck. Cleft of mouth turned up behind the eye.
Body : cylindrical.
Tail : moderate, slightly compressed.
Eye : small, pupil vertically elliptic.
Nostrils small, placed on the top of the head and valvular. This feature is characteristic of the river snakes.
Head shields—The head is shielded but irregularly (as in all the river snakes). The frontal may be broken up into small shields.
V7
The parietals are always more or less broken up into scales.
The nasals are large and in contact behind the rostral. They are semi-divided, the cleft ex- tending from the nostril to the Ist or 2nd upper labial.
Small internasals are present, also a loreal.
One, two or three sub-oculars.
Nine or ten upper labials, the posterior divided transversely,
Scales—28 or 25, very strongly keeled.
Ventrals— Narrow, and rounded, 132 to 160; anal divid- ed. Sub-caudals 49—72.
Colour—Grey, brown, olive, dark ash or blackish above. More or less distinct darker spots or cross- bars, especially posteriorly. A black streak on each side of the head, passing through the eye. A more or less distinct white or yellowish lateral band.
Beneath whitish or yellowish, spotted or barred or marbled with dark ash or black, or almost entirely black.
Habitat— Common in East Indian estuaries.
GROUP III.—Swaxes wiTH BROAD VENTRALS AND SHIELDED HEADS.
Sus-Group A.— Harmuess. THE BLUNT-HEADED SNAKE (Amblycephalus monticola).
Norr.—The whole family of snakes, to which this one’ belongs, is characterised by the absence of a “ mental groove.” The mental groove, which exists in nearly all other snakes, is.a groove. running longitudinally. along the chin -between the sub-linguals or chin shields—(vide Fig. 3, a to b,)
18
Length—About two feet. Tail five inches.
Shape—Head : thick, large, very distinct from neck. The
mouth can be but slightly expanded. There is no mental groove.
Body : compressed and slender.
Tail : slender ; moderate or short.
Eye: moderate with vertical pupil.
Head shields—Regular.
A single nasal.
No loreal but a large pre-ocular.
The sublinguals or chin shields are unsymmetri- cal. There are three pairs rather large. Note absence of mental groove.
Scales—15, smooth. The vertebral row of scales is enlarged and hexagonal like the krait (Fig. 7).
Ventrals—188 to 194;analentire. Sub-caudals 70—87 ; double. :
Colour—Brown above with vertical blackish bars on the sides.
A black line from above the eye to the nape, and another from behind the eye to the angle of the mouth.
Yellowish below, dotted with brown.
. Habitat—Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Khasi and Naga Hills. It is not uncommon in these localities and care must be taken not to mistake it for a krait.
ABLABES CALAMARIA (No English name).*
Length—A small snake. Grows to about 12 inches, tail one-fourth of the whole length.
* Cyclophis Calamaria (Nicholson),
19
Shape— Head : scarcely distinct, with obtuse snout. Body : slender. Tail : moderate. Eye: moderate in size.
Head shields—Normal. <A single long nasal, pierced by the nostril. The loreal is fused with the nasal, A single pre-ocular. Internasals and _pre-frontals, broad and short. Upper labials 7 (3 and 4).
Scales—15, smooth.
Ventrals—129 to 138; anal bifid. Sub-caudals 50—83, divided.
Colouring—Light olive, with a reticulated pattern formed by a black edge to each scale. This ‘reticulation forms four thick lines along the back, two on each side of the middle line ; also two thin lines on each side, ze., two lateral lines. Alternate with these are five white lines (on each side). Belly white.
Habitat—Ceylon and South of India.
THE VARIEGATED KUKRI SNAKE (Oligodon subgriseus).
Length—10 to 18 inches,
Shape—Head: short, not distinct from neck. Body : sub-cylindrical. A small-snake. Tail : one-seventh of body. Eye : small ; pupil round, iris golden, Teeth : no palatine teeth.*
Head shields—Nostril between two partly confluent nasals. One pre-ocular ; one or two -post- ocular. Rostral produced backwards. Supra- labials 7 (3 and 4).
* A very exceptional cheracteristic. —
20
Scales —15, smooth, rounded.
Ventrals—-180 to 202; anal bifid. Sub-caudals 48—54 bifid.
Colouring—Brown with numerous narrow dark fascio- lated cross lines, crossed by three longitudinal whitish stripes ; belly white. Head with symmetrical > markings which are charac- teristic of the whole genus.
Habitat ~Said to be common in the South of India.
Norsz.—Other species are very similar but generally with fewer ventrals.
SIMOTES ARNENSIS (Wo English name).
Length—Grows to 2 feet. ‘Tail one-seventh.
Shape—Similar to Uligodon subgriseus, but, like nearly all other snakes, it has palatine teeth.
Head shields—The internasals are short and transverse
and the rostral is produced backwards be- tween them. Nostril lies between two nasals.
.Scales—17, smooth.
Ventrals—160 to 200; anal bifid. _Sub-caudals 47—56, divided.
Colouring—Brown with 20 to 30 or more broad black, very slightly white-edged cross-bands. Belly white.
Head markings very distinct ;-a black fillet through the eyes ; a > rising from the throat, the point on the frontal shield, the first cross-band forming another > behind it.
Habitat—Common in India and Ceylon.
* Simotes Russellii (Nicholson).
21 THE CORAL-TAIL SNAKE (Simotes erwentatus).
Very similar to Simotes arnensis. But the anal is some- times entire, The chief difference is only in the colouring, Olive brown; a dark vertebral stripe, sometimes enclosing a lighter stripe; a thin lateral stripe. Belly greenish yellow with square blue-black spots ; sub-caudals coral-red with black spot at the root and near the tip of the tail. Punctu- lated head markings often not unlike a mask.
The coral-red of the tail, however, changes to yellow after death.
Habitat —Common in Burma.
SIMOTES CYCLURUS (No English name).*
Length—Similar to the two preceding snakes, but larger. -It grows to 24 feet and has a stout body.
Scales—19 or 21.
Ventrals—160 to 210; anal entire. Slight ventral keel.
Sub-caudals 86 —58, divided.
Colouring —Light reddish brown, with three darker stripes; the vertebral stripe encloses a light median line and exvends on to the frontal head shields separating two oblique head markings that converge from the dorsal stripes. Fillet across the eyes. Belly white
‘- or fawn with alternate square spots.
Habitat—Common in Burma.
THE COMMON WOLF SNAKE (Lycodon aulicus or striatus.)
Length—One to two feet. Shape—Head distinct, with flat, long snout.
“*Bimotes bieatenateis (Nicholson). ,
29
Body : slender, rather flattened.
Tail : tapering.
Eye: small, black, beady. The vertical pupil is hard to distinguish on account of the black iris.
Teeth —The anterior teeth both in the upper and lower jaw are long. This characteristic, though not always very conspicuous, can generally be made out,
Heud shields—Regular. (In aulicus the pre-ocular
, reaches the frontal ; in striatus it does not.)
_ Scales—17, smooth.
Ventrals—178 to 224 ; anal divided. Sub-caudals 57--77; double.
Colouring—Chocolate brown with numerous white or yellowish cross-bands decussating laterally and most evident in the anterior part of the body. In old specimens the cross-bars are less dis- tinct.
Habitat—A very common snake both in India and Burma. On account of its colour, I suppose, it is frequently mistaken for a krait. It is small, lively and bites readily, hence kraits have got the reputation for these characteristics.
THE LITTLE TRINKET SNAKE (Coluber Helena).*
Length—Grows to upwards of 3 feet, tail one-fifth. Shape—Head : narrow with elongated snout. Distinct. . Body : slender and compressed, Tail: moderate or tapering and thin, Eye : moderate, pupil round with greenish iris,
Heud shields—Regular.
* Cynophis Helena (Nicholson).
23
Scales—27, slightly keeled.
Ventrals-~ About 220 to 250; anal entire. Sub-caudals about 70—100 ; double.
Colouring—Reddish olive, with about 30 anterior reticu- lated black cross-bands, each enclosing 3 white ocelli on either side ; between the cross-bars is a reticulated lavender pattern; the whole principally interstitial, fading posteriorly into a broad lateral brown stripe; neck with two black throat stripes ; black postocular streak. A beautiful snake.
Habitat—Ceylon and South India. I found it in Mhow.
THE RED DHAMAN (Coluber radiatus).
Length—Grows to six feet, tail one-fifth. Shape— Head : narrow with long snout. Body : elongate and compressed. Tail; moderate. Eye: moderate with golden iris.
Head shields—Normal ; one pre ocular and two nasals.. The pree-ocular and loreal have a rough porous appearance. Labials, 9 (4, 5 and 6).
Scales—19 : keeled, especially the middle rows.
Ventrals—222 to 248 ; anal single. Sub-caudals, 67—95.
Colouring—Bright chestnut darkening posteriorly. Three anterior black dorsal ‘stripes, the upper broad, the middle interrupted, the outer inter- stitial From the eye radiate three black streaks : one down, one downwards and back- wards, one horizontally along the parietals joining a broad, black nuchal band.
Habitat— Common in Burma.
* Compsosoma Radigtum (Nicholson),
24 THE DHAMAN OR RAT SNAKE (Zamenis mucosus).
Length—A large snake, six, seven or eight feet long, and 3, 4 or 5 inches in girth. Tail, one-fifth to
one-third of length.
Shape—Head : distinct, rather short and broad.
Body : elongate and somewhat compressed but stout.
Tail : tapering.
Eye: large, pupil round, iris golden.
Head shields—Normal. The supra-oculars overhang and shelter the eye. Two pré-oculars, the upper reaching right into the crown of the head. Generally 3 loreals. Twonasals. The head shields, especially the 8 supra-labials, have black margins.
Scales—17, not markedly keeled, except perhaps the middle rows towards the tail.
Ventrals—196 to 208 ; anal bifid. Sub-caudals, 108—134, double.
Colouring—Brownish, yellowish olive or very dark olive green; with interstitial skin-colouring of yellow and black. Scales with black tips. Ventrals have thin posterior black edges, with a row of black dots on each side of them. This on the double sub-caudals makes a re- ticuled pattern on the tail. Belly greenish or yellowish white.
When young is oftena delicate green colour, unlike the adult.
Habitat—Very common in India.
* Ptyas mucosuso (Nicholson),
25 THE SLENDER DHAMAN (Zamenisa korros),
Length—-Six to seven feet. Shape—Head : narrow with slender neck. Body, ete. : generally like the Dhaman,
Head shields —Normal, generally only two loreals and the shields have no black margins, otherwise like the Dhaman.
Scales—15, smooth, with apical grooves,
Ventrals—176 to 184; anal bifid. Sub-caudals 138— 147, but may be less (57 in one specimen).
Colowring— Uniform brown olive. In the young there is a'transverse series of roundish pearl-coloured spots, forming cross-bands. The sub-caudals have black margins, but not so marked as in the Dhaman.
Habitat—Common in Burma, rare in India.
Several other of these “ Dhamans” are common, but
they have nospecial English names, so we must fall back on their scientific names